In the psychological teachings of various eras. The historical formation of developmental psychology. Egopsychology E. Erickson
Control work on the course "Age psychology"
on the topic "The history of the development of developmental psychology as a science"
Introduction 3
Formation of developmental psychology as an independent field of psychological science. 4
The beginning of a systematic study child development 9
From the history of the formation and development of Russian developmental psychology 11
Conclusion 20
Literature 21
The text of the control work is given with abbreviations!
Introduction
The history of developmental psychology and developmental psychology studies the patterns of formation and development of views on the human psyche based on the analysis of various approaches to understanding the genesis of the psyche.
Formation of developmental psychology as an independent branch scientific knowledge refers to the second half of the 19th century. The objective prerequisites for its formation were:
Formation of developmental psychology as an independent field of psychological science.
In the psychological teachings of past eras (during antiquity, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance), many of the most important questions of the development of children have already been raised. Studies of human mental development began in ancient times. The first works related to the search for the foundations of the psyche, the foundations of the soul, led researchers to the idea of development soul and the need to study both the factors determining (determining) this development and its stages.
The beginning of a systematic study of child development
The first concepts of the mental development of children arose under the influence of Charles Darwin's law of evolution and the so-called biogenetic law.
Biogenetic law, formulated in the XIX century. biologists E. Haeckel and F. Müller, is based on the principle of recapitulation (repeatability). He says that the history The economic development of a species is reflected in the individual development of the organizational nism belonging to this species. The individual development of an organism (ontogenesis) is a brief and rapid repetition of the history of the development of a number of ancestors of a given species (phylogenesis).
From the history of the formation and development of Russian developmental psychology
The initial stages of the formation of developmental and pedagogical psychology in Russia also date back to the second half of the 19th century.
For the Russian culture of the pre-revolutionary period, the idea of humanism was organic, the idea of interest in the inner world of a person, including a child (suffice it to recall "Childhood", "Boyhood", "Youth" by L.N. Tolstoy, "Childhood of Bagrov's grandson" ST Aksakov and much more).Political and economic chesky reforms of the 60s. XIX century, the rise of cultural and scientific life, a surge of interest in education and hopes associated with education, led to the realization of the need to build a scientific theories of education and training.
Conclusion
Studies of human mental development began in ancient times. In the Middle Ages, from the 3rd c. by 14th c. the problems of the development of cognition, the study of the main cognitive processes as stages in the development of cognition in children, the dynamics of their formation and methods of their formation, came to the fore.
The development of society in modern times led to the need to develop an objective scientific basis for the views expressed by humanists about the human psyche.
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The Renaissance (Renaissance - the term was introduced in the 16th century by D. Vasari) - transition period from medieval culture to the culture of modern times. It is characterized by the emergence of machine production, the improvement of tools, the continuing division of manufacturing labor, the spread of printing, and geographical discoveries. In the humanistic worldview of people, a cheerful free-thinking is affirmed. In the sciences, interest in the fate and capabilities of a person prevails; in ethical concepts, his right to happiness is justified. A person begins to realize that he was not created for God, that in his deeds he is free and great, that there are no barriers to his mind.
Scientists of this period considered the restoration of ancient values as their main task. However, only that and in such a way that was consonant with the new way of life and the intellectual atmosphere conditioned by it was “revived”. In this regard, the ideal of the “universal man” was affirmed, which was believed not only by thinkers, but also by many rulers of Europe, who gathered the outstanding minds of the era under their banners (for example, in Florence at the Medici court, the sculptor and painter Michelangelo and architect Alberti worked).
Here are two more stories that convey the atmosphere of that time. So Emperor Charles Y summoned Titian (1476 - 1576) to himself, surrounded him with honor and respect, and said more than once:
I can create a duke, but where can I get a second Titian?
The following story also tells about Charles Y, the Spanish king and Titian, an Italian painter. One day the artist was working in his presence, and his brush fell off.
The king lifted her up and said:
To serve Titian is honorable even to the emperor.
The new attitude was reflected in the desire to take a fresh look at the soul - the central link of any scientific system about personality. At the first lectures at universities, students asked teachers: “Tell me about the soul,” which was a kind of litmus test, a characteristic of the worldview, scientific and pedagogical potential of the teacher.
The new era brought to life new ideas about the nature of the individual and his mental world. Outstanding representatives of the Renaissance showed themselves in their statement. F. Engels rightly noted that the era that needed titans "gave birth to titans in terms of the power of thought, passion and character."
An outstanding figure of the era is Nicholas of Cusa (1401 - 1464). Nicholas of Cusa left behind an extensive literary heritage, among his works are such as: "On learned ignorance", "Simple", "On the hunt for wisdom", "On the squaring of the circle." The Catalan Raymond Lull had a great, just a huge influence on Nicholas. In order to make extracts from the writings of Lulius, in 1248 Nicholas specially traveled to Paris, where he had access to the original works of the philosopher. In the works of Nicholas there are many references to Plato, Socrates, Augustine, Anaxagoras, Pythagoras, Democritus, Aristotle, Plotinus, Aprocles, Thomas Aquinas and others are discussed. Nicholas of Cusa made a brilliant theological career. By order of Cardinal Nicholas of Cusa, the first map of Germany was made on copper.
In full splendor, the views of Nicholas were revealed only after the German researcher Scharpf in 1862 published his main works in German translation and retelling. In the following decades, numerous reprints of the works of Nicholas of Cusa appeared in the original and translations. In 1960, the interethnic and inter-confessional "Society of Cusa" was founded in Germany.
“Any study that seeks to consider the philosophy of the Renaissance as a systematic unity must take as its starting point the teachings of Nicholas of Cusa,” wrote the German philosopher Ernst Cassirer (1874–1945), author of numerous studies on the history of philosophy.
Nicholas of Cusa, a hundred years before Copernicus, expressed thoughts about the geometric-mechanistic picture of the world, which predetermined his worldview. The outstanding preacher becomes one of the first defenders of the mechanistic understanding of nature and its phenomena in the Renaissance.
The process of cognition means for Nicholas of Cusa the endless improvement of human knowledge. Four stages are distinguished in it: sensory knowledge, rational knowledge, synthetic knowledge of the intellect-mind, intuitive (mystical) knowledge. The new word of the scientist is the definition of the presence of reason as the highest level of cognition in sensation-feeling (as an activity of attention and discrimination). Reason was recognized by Nicholas of Cusa as a higher cognitive ability in relation to reason. Due to the fact that "all things consist of opposites in various degrees," the understanding thinks them in accordance with the law of contradiction. The mind is capable of thinking infinitely.
Leonardo da Vinci (1452 - 1519), one of the titans of the Renaissance, represented a new science that originated not within the walls of universities, where ancient texts were still commented on, but in the workshops of artists and inventors. Their experience radically changed the culture and style of scientific thinking. In their scientific and creative practice, they were "transformers of the world." supreme value was given not to the divine mind, but, in the language of Leonardo, to the "divine science of painting." At the same time, painting was understood not only as the art of depicting the world in artistic images. “Painting,” wrote the great sculptor, “is extended to the philosophy of nature.”
Meaning scientific activity the scientist saw in the practical use of mankind. “Empty and full of errors are those sciences,” Leonardo da Vinci argued, “that are not generated by experience.” At the same time, he substantiated a deep idea about the need to combine practical experience and its scientific understanding as the main way to discover truths. “In love with practical science,” he wrote, “like a helmsman stepping on a ship without a rudder or compass; he is never sure where he is sailing... Science is the commander, and practice is the soldiers.” Mathematics, he considered the most reliable science, necessary for understanding and generalizing experience.
As a scientist, Leonardo marvels at the "wisdom" of the laws of nature, and as an artist, he admires its beauty, perfection and uniqueness of the human body and soul. He depicts the proportions of the human body as a magnificent anatomist, and the uniqueness of the human soul - as an unsurpassed psychologist and painter.
Pietro Pomponazzi (1462 - 1525) - Italian scientist, the largest representative of Renaissance Aristotelianism. In the treatise "On the Immortality of the Soul", based on the theory of dual truth, he rejected the possibility of a rational explanation of the immortality of the soul. "The human soul, the highest and most perfect of material forms, begins and ceases to exist together with the body; it cannot act or exist in any way without the body." In the essay “On the Causes of Natural Phenomena, or on Magic,” the thinker proposed to explain all phenomena not by faith in the mysteries of nature, but by natural causes.
The works and psychological views of Pietro Pomponazzi caused the Alexandrian movement in Europe. This trend was associated with the name of the Greek peripatetic of the late II - early III centuries, Alexander of Aphrodia, who in his comments on Aristotle interpreted his teaching in the sense of annihilation, along with the body, not only of the animal - sentient, but also of the rational soul.
Juan Luis Vives (1492 - 1540) - a famous Spanish humanist, teacher. Speaking against scholasticism and seeing the basis of knowledge in direct observation and experiment, in many respects he anticipated the experimental method of Francis Bacon. Vives paved new paths in psychology and pedagogy, considering the main task not to determine the essence of the soul ("what is the soul?"), but an inductive study of its manifestations. So, in the book “On the Soul and Life” (1538), famous in the Renaissance, the thinker argued that human nature is learned not from books, but through observation and experience, which make it possible to properly organize the process of education. Not the abstract "essence" of the soul, but its real manifestations should be the main subject of scientific analysis.
At the heart of his psychological and pedagogical concept lies the principle of sensationalism and the view of association as a factor in the gradual formation of personality. Vives emphasizes that knowledge only makes sense when it is applied. Accordingly, he outlines ways to improve memory, methods of reproduction, rules of mnemonics. The descriptive-empirical approach (instead of the traditional, scholastic-speculative one) is also characteristic of his interpretation of emotional and thought processes. It is impossible to dwell on what the ancient thinkers claimed, one needs one's own observations and an empirical study of the facts of mental life - such is the position of Vives as a "pioneer of empirical psychology".
Another thinker of medieval Spain, a follower of H.L. Vives, the doctor Juan Huarte (1530 - 1592), also, rejecting scholasticism, demanded the use of the inductive method in cognition, which he outlined in the book "Investigations of the abilities for the sciences." This was the first work in the history of psychology, in which the task was to study the individual differences between people in order to determine their suitability for specific professions. Therefore, X. Uarte can be considered the initiator of the direction, later called differential psychology. In his study, he posed four questions: “What qualities does that nature have that makes a person capable of one science and incapable of another ... what kinds of talents are there in the human race ... what arts and sciences correspond to each talent, in particular ... by what signs can one recognize the corresponding talent.
The Spanish physician Gomez Pereira (1500 - 1560), anticipating the views of Rene Descartes for a whole century, in his book "Antoniana Margarita" proposed to consider the body of an animal as an "apsychic" body - a kind of machine controlled by external influences and not requiring participation for its work. souls.
Bernardino Telesio (1509 - 1588) famous thinker of the Renaissance. He gained popularity by publishing the work "On the nature of things in accordance with its principles." These "principles" formed the basis of the activities of the natural-science society he created near Naples. Unbridled fantasy ("variations on the theme of Empedocles"), characteristic of the entire science of this period, manifested itself in the concept of the soul of B. Telesio. The whole world, according to his views, is filled with passive-passive matter - a "battlefield" of opposite principles, "heat" and "cold". In these two principles, people's perceptions are realized - incorporeal and animated "primal elements". Therefore, mental phenomena are considered by scientists as functions of heat and cold. The human soul itself is recognized in two coexisting varieties - bodily-mortal and spiritual-immortal.
Based on materialistic traditions, B. Telesio develops the theory of affects. Following the universal natural expediency of preserving the achieved state, in positive affects, a force is manifested that strives to preserve the soul, and in negative ones (fear, fear, sadness, etc.) - its weakness. Cognition, according to his views, is based on the imprinting and reproduction of external influences by the subtle matter of the soul. Reason is made up of comparison and connection of sensory impressions.
Giordano Bruno (1550 - 1600) in his teaching develops the materialistic - pantheistic views of Nicholas of Cusa and Nicholas Copernicus. Among his writings, the most significant for psychological knowledge were the treatises: "On the Infinite", "On the Combination of Images and Ideas", "The Expulsion of the Triumphant Animal", "On the Monad, Number and Figure". In them, J. Bruno talks about the Universe as a huge animal. God in his system finally "moves" into the creative nature, which in itself is "God in things." The scientist is convinced of the universal animation of nature. D. Bruno writes: "The world is animated together with its members."
“Matter,” the scientist emphasizes, “is the beginning, necessary, eternal and divine ... In the very body of nature, matter should be distinguished from the soul, and in the latter ... mind should be distinguished from its species.” Emphasizing the active nature of the spiritual principle, J. Bruno nowhere speaks of its incorporeal existence, separate from the body. Man, in his opinion, is a microcosm, a reflection of the world. People have many means of knowing reality. Among them, sensory perception is an unreliable source of knowledge, since its horizon is very limited. The sensual beginning is opposed to the mind.
The scientist's thoughts about the reason for the separation of man from the animal world deserve close attention. “The nature of the soul,” J. Bruno argues at Oxford University, “is the same for all organized beings, and the difference in its manifestations is determined by the greater or lesser perfection of those tools that it has in each case. (...) Think, in fact, what would happen to a person if he had at least twice as much intelligence, if his hands (Bruno calls them "an organ of all organs" - author's note) turned into a pair of legs. Others hallmarks personality he calls "understanding" and memory.
In his teaching, J. Bruno affirms the idea of universal development, to which all spiritual manifestations of man are subject. His thought is about developing infinite monads, from which, by means of connection and separation, natural world and the soul as its component, was later developed by G. Leibniz.
Tommaso Campanella (1568 - 1639) - an outstanding thinker of the era, in his psychological views, is a supporter of the sensationalist teachings of B. Telesio. T. Campanella's theory is directed against ideas about "forms", abilities and potential entities. All knowledge, the scientist claims, has experience and feelings as its source.
The thinker in his works describes a system of psychological concepts, including memory, understanding, inference, desire, attraction, etc. All definitions are derived from sensations, which "is a feeling of excitement, accompanied by an inference regarding a really existing object, and not an idea of pure potency." Therefore, it is impossible to dwell on sensory cognition, it needs to be supplemented by reason: “Sensation is not only excitation, but also consciousness of excitation and judgment about the object that causes excitation.” Reason, based on the concept and imagination, combines sensory perceptions and experience. General concepts are inherent in our thinking and are reliable principles of the sciences.
Together with cognition, scientists affirm the existence of faith. There are no contradictions between faith and knowledge: the world is the second Bible, the living code of nature, the reflection of God. Following Augustine, T. Campanella establishes the thesis as a starting point of view: only that I exist is known for certain. All knowledge comes down to self-knowledge.
The outstanding galaxy of Renaissance thinkers also includes: the creator of a new theory about the nature of the human body and methods of treating diseases - Philip von Hohenheim - Paracelsus (1493 - 1541); the author of the brilliant work "On the structure of the human body" - Andreas Vesalius (1514 - 1564); the founder of the doctrine of the pulmonary circulation - Miguel Serveta (1509/1511 - 1553) and many others. others.
The psychological theories of the Renaissance approved dependence - the determination of the human psyche from his body and environment, forming the so-called "psychology of life". Thus, they prepared an intellectual breakthrough in the psychological teachings of modern times, which are the general scientific basis of modern psychological science.
Important features of the psychological views of the Renaissance were the approval of the ideas of humanism and the desire for the practical use of the results of scientific research in the interests of man.
In the psychological teachings of past epochs (in antiquity, in the Middle Ages, in the Renaissance), many of the most important questions of the mental development of children have already been posed.
In the works of the ancient Greek scientists Heraclitus, Democritus.
Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, the conditions and factors for the formation of the behavior and personality of children, the development of their thinking, creativity and abilities were considered, the idea of a harmonious mental development of a person was formulated.
During the Middle Ages, from the 3rd to the 14th centuries...
Among the psychologists who actively dealt with the problems of child development in the first decades of the 20th century, the most famous are A. Binet, E. Meiman, D. Selly, E. Claparede, V. Stern, A. Gesell and some others.
The English scientist J. Selley considered the formation of the human psyche from the standpoint of the associative approach.
He singled out the mind, feelings and will as the main components of the psyche. The significance of his work for the practice of child education consisted in determining the content of the first associations of the child and ...
Do not interrupt the child's emotions, but help them survive!
Child psychologist Irina Mlodik calls for a careful attitude to children's feelings (in particular, to children's fear). There is such a situation that adults, as a rule, interrupt almost all the feelings of the child - and especially fear, anger, anger, resentment, etc. Irina Mlodik says that this, of course, is an easier way for a parent - but it has a bad effect on the child's psyche.
It is more important to allow the child to experience these feelings, to share them with him ...
At first, the newborn is perceived by the older child as a new toy: it is curious to touch it, you can rejoice at it. But after a while, you will notice that everything has changed. It became clear to your firstborn that the baby settled in his territory forever. At the same time, he sleeps a lot or spends time in his mother's arms.
The smaller the age of the older child, the more explicit his manifestations of jealousy will be. Some children become aggressive towards the baby, but even more often - because ...
The ability to vary the object of the game with the help of fantasy gives the child a sense of power over the subject of the game, develops a taste for free play. creative activity, creates new incentives for activity. As long as childhood is not over, games have this mental effect, they have this function.
Hence the formula that Gros put forward in his time: we do not play because we are children, but for this we were given childhood so that we could play. The function of childhood, according to this formula, is to develop...
Already from the age of seven, modern children often suffer from complexes that their parents at that age were not familiar with. They worry that they are ugly, not slim enough or too "retracted"... Ten-year-old Anton learns to play the violin, devoting two hours to music every day.
Natalya, his mother, is delighted: “The son is engaged without any reminders!” But recently he demanded not to tell his friends about his hobby. “When I asked why,” says Natalya, “he replied that the violin ...
Situation. Your oldest is over four years old when the youngest just started crawling. It is not necessary to explain that you love both of them as much as a mother of her children can love. Nevertheless, it is clear that the youngest today needs much more attention due to his complete helplessness.
You, as a decent mother, tried to do everything so that the elder did not feel deprived of attention, and he, as it seems to you, loves his younger brother (sister). But suddenly something changed, the “adult” became ...
The psychology of envy originates as an emotion of envy during the period of conception and develops during the first month of life, and then it is formed into the “Envy” program, which begins an independent journey from the human subconscious, building its algorithms and behavior patterns for the rest of life.
A child's envy program is fully formed by the age of 3.
For some, this program starts earlier, for others later, but almost all living people have experienced at least once in their lives ...
After studying chapter 3, the bachelor should:
know
Patterns of physiological and mental development and features of their manifestation in the educational process in different age periods;
be able to
- take into account the peculiarities of individual development of students in pedagogical interaction;
- design the educational process using modern technologies, corresponding to the general and specific patterns and features of the age development of the individual;
own
Methods for the implementation of psychological and pedagogical support and support.
Patterns of human mental development and age periodization
The emergence of developmental psychology and developmental psychology. Factors and driving forces of development. The problem of age periodization.
The emergence of developmental and developmental psychology
In many teachings of past eras (in the period of Antiquity, in the Middle Ages, in the Renaissance), the most important questions of the mental development of children have already been raised.
In the works of the ancient Greek scientists Heraclitus, Democritus, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, questions and factors of the formation of the behavior and personality of children, the development of their thinking and abilities were discussed. It was in their works that the idea of harmonious human development was first formulated.
During the Middle Ages, from the 3rd to the 14th centuries, more attention was paid to the formation of a socially adapted personality, the education of the required personality traits, the study of cognitive processes and methods of influencing the child.
During the Renaissance (E. Rotterdamsky, Ya. A. Comenius), the issues of organizing training, teaching on the basis of humanistic principles, taking into account the individual characteristics of children and their interests came to the fore.
In the studies of historians and philosophers of the Enlightenment R. Descartes, B. Spinoza, J. Locke, J.-J. Rousseau discussed the problem of heredity and environmental factors and their influence on the development of the child. It was during this period that two extreme positions emerged in understanding the driving forces of human development. These ideas, of course, in a significantly modified form, can be found in the writings of psychologists in subsequent years and even in the writings of modern authors. This is nativism – understanding of the development of the child as determined by nature, heredity and internal forces, presented in the works of J.-J. Rousseau, and empiricism , which proclaimed the decisive importance of training, experience, external factors in the development of the child. The founder of this trend is J. Locke.
Knowledge accumulated over time, but in most writings the child was described as a kind of creature devoid of activity and own opinion, which, with proper and skillful guidance, can be largely shaped at the will of an adult.
Only in the second half of the XIX century. the prerequisites for the emergence of childhood psychology as a separate science are gradually beginning to take shape. The period of the emergence of developmental psychology (the end of the 19th - the beginning of the 20th century) is an interesting, in many ways a turning point in the history of mankind: industry is actively developing, everything is changing public life, serious transformations are taking place in various sciences. By and large, it was during this period that new directions were laid in the development of many sciences, especially the sciences of man.
The prerequisites for the emergence of developmental psychology were the following.
- 1. The development of society and production, which required new organization education. Gradually, a transition is being made from individual education to general mass education, without which it cannot develop. industrial production, which means that there is an urgent need to develop new methods of working with groups of children.
- 2. Scientific ideas and discoveries that changed the view of the person as a whole during this period, as well as the tasks of childhood as a life stage. One of the central scientific discoveries in this regard can be called the discovery of Charles Darwin, whose evolutionary biological theory introduced the idea of development, the genesis of the psyche, the idea of the psyche going through a number of regular stages.
- 3. There are new objective methods of research and experiment in psychology. The method of introspection (self-observation), used earlier, could not be used to study the psyche of children. Therefore, the emergence of objective methods in psychology was such an important stage in its development.
The starting point for the formation of developmental psychology as a science, many researchers consider the book published in 1882 by the German biologist W. Preyer "The Soul of a Child". In his work, he describes the results of observations of his own child from 1 to 3 years old, paying attention to the development of his senses, will, reason, language. Despite the fact that observations of the development of children were carried out even before the appearance of the book by V. Preyer, his main merit was the introduction of the method of objective observation of the child into psychology, a similar method was previously used only in natural sciences. It is from this point on that research into childhood becomes systematic.
Developmental psychology and developmental psychology are historically two closely related sciences. Developmental psychology can be called the "heir" of genetic psychology. Genetic psychology, or developmental psychology, is primarily interested in the emergence and development of mental processes. This science analyzes the formation of mental processes, based on the results of various studies, including those conducted with the participation of children, but children themselves are not the subject of study of developmental psychology.
Age-related psychology – this is the doctrine of the periods of child development, their change and transitions from one age to another , as well as the general patterns and trends of these transitions. That is, children and child development at various age stages are the subject of developmental psychology. In the same time they have one object of study – This is the mental development of man.
In many ways, the distinction between developmental psychology and developmental psychology suggests that the very subject of child psychology has changed over time.
Developmental psychology is closely related to many branches of psychology. So, with general psychology, it is united by the basic ideas about the psyche, the methods used in research, as well as the system of basic concepts.
Developmental psychology has much in common with educational psychology; we can find a particularly close interweaving of these two sciences in Russian history, reflected in the works of P. P. Blonsky, Π. F. Kapterev, A. P. Nechaev, later L. S. Vygotsky and other thinkers of the early 20th century. These are the ideas of organizing a scientific approach to education and upbringing, taking into account the peculiarities of child development. The close connection of these sciences is explained by the common object of study, while the subject of pedagogical psychology is the training and education of the subject in the process of the teacher's purposeful influence.
The mental development of a person occurs within various social communities - families, peer groups, organized groups, etc. As a subject of communication and interaction, the developing individual is of interest to social psychology.
Developmental psychology has common fields for consideration with such branches of psychology as clinical psychology and pathopsychology. In these sciences there is also a developing individual, but his development is considered from the point of view of emerging violations.
The purpose of developmental psychology is the study of the development of a healthy person in the process of ontogenesis.
Developmental psychology has many points of intersection with various sciences: medicine, pedagogy, ethnography, cultural studies, etc.
- Martsinkovskaya T. D. History of child psychology. M., 1998. S. 3-59.
The seeker of new paths in science, the forerunner of the Renaissance was Roger Bacon (1214-1292). In disputes with the scholastics, he proclaimed the importance of experiments and observation in knowledge. However, experience, according to Bacon, makes it possible to know the body, but it is powerless to know the soul. For the knowledge of the soul, something else is needed, a special kind of inspiration, some kind of inner enlightenment, which makes it possible to comprehend what sensory perception cannot reveal. Bacon gives a great deal of material on the optic nerves and visual perception, which he explains from the general laws of propagation, refraction, and reflection of light. The natural science direction developed by Roger Bacon and some other scientists was an important line in the development of the materialistic ideas of medieval philosophy.
In the XIV century. in Italy, a new era begins - the Renaissance, which later marked the great flowering of civilization throughout Europe. During the transition of medieval feudal society to a new phase of its development, which is characterized by the appearance of elements of relations that were new for that time - early capitalist ones, the influence of Antiquity again manifested itself. By the XIV century. includes the activities of the greatest humanists - A. Dante (1265 - 1321), F. Petrarch (1304 - 1374), D. Boccaccio (1313 - 1375). A great interest in man, in his experiences and problems of existence distinguishes all their works. According to the cultural historian J. Burckhardt (1818 - 1897), in this era, the "discovery of man" takes place. Coluccio Salutati (1331 - 1406) and Leonardo Bruni (1369 - 1444), followers of Petrarch, used the word humanitas (humanity) as a property of a person that determines his human dignity and attracts knowledge.
In their perfect creations, art is not yet freed from religious content: secular and ecclesiastical merge into unity. Essentially, it is a poetic depiction of ideas. Dante in the Divine Comedy, Boccaccio in short stories, Petrarch in sonnets and canzones attack alchemy, astrology, magic, mysticism and asceticism with devastating criticism. The most important invention of the 15th century - printing (1436, I. Gutenberg, Germany) - made it possible for humanism to fulfill its educational task. Humanists are engaged in the publication of classical ancient literature. Humanism has become the most important phenomenon in the spiritual life of Western European countries, including the Netherlands and Germany. An outstanding humanist was Erasmus, born in Rotterdam, and therefore known as Erasmus of Rotterdam (1469 - 1536). The author of the well-known satire "Praise of Stupidity" in his philosophical works outlined a system of rules to strengthen the spirit. It is not enough just to want to be free from this or that vice. "... It should always and always be remembered that human life ... is nothing but a continuous struggle ... with a great army of vices ...". In the fight against them, the spirit must be armed. There are two types of weapons: prayer and knowledge, especially the Holy Scriptures and the wisdom of the ancients. The richer these tools, the more armed a person is. "The beginning ... of wisdom is in the knowledge of oneself." The weapon of a man - a Christian warrior, in the terminology of Erasmus, is the means aimed at mastering the own movements of the soul. These thoughts echo the ideas of L.S. Vygotsky about the mediated nature of human mental processes.
In the works of the figures of the Renaissance, a humanistic concept of man is formed. Its foundations were laid by the great Dante. The embodiment of high ideas about a person is the image of Ulysses (Odysseus) - a bold discoverer, a hero, a valiant, intelligent person. Through his mouth, Dante proclaimed a new view of man.
"O brothers...
That short period, while they still do not sleep
Earthly feelings - their remnant is meager
Give in to the comprehension of novelty ...
You were not created for animal fate,
But they were born for valor and knowledge.
Freedom and personal responsibility, nobility, the ability to exploit, to fulfill the earthly destiny, which is activity, are the most important features of a person. The concept of humanists contains a new understanding of the relationship between the divine and natural principles: they must be in unity. Man is a creative being. Its dignity lies in the ability to rise above the animal state: what is truly human in it comes from culture. The humanistic view of man breaks with asceticism, proclaims the right of man to the fullness of physical and spiritual existence, the maximum development of the best human qualities.
Leonardo da Vinci (1452 - 1519) revealed the inconsistency of man. Man is a magnificent instrument of nature, an earthly god, but he is also cruel and often insignificant in his thoughts and actions.
A new aspect in the understanding of man is revealed in the work of the outstanding Italian statesman and political philosopher Nicolo Machiavelli (1487 - 1527). According to Machiavelli, political action requires a person, first of all, to take into account objective circumstances, the will, energy and strength of a politician - valor (virtu). In order to achieve the set goal, a politician should not reckon with moral and religious assessments. Politics and morality are autonomous. Moral considerations are subordinated to the goals of politics. Only the state interest, that is, the national interest, the interest of the fatherland, drives the actions of a statesman. The result of these arguments was the conclusion: the end justifies the means. In modern psychology, there is the concept of "Machiavellianism". It refers to the tendency of a person to manipulate other people. A technique has been developed for identifying Machiavellianism as a personality characteristic.
A deep psychological analysis of a person is contained in the work of the French philosopher M. Montaigne (1533 - 1592) "Experiments". Much attention is paid to self-knowledge. Man, according to Montaigne, is not the center of the universe, but part of it. “When I play with a cat, who knows if she is more likely to play with me than I am with her?” he asks. Montaigne's skepticism, his thoughts about the virtues of the common man, criticism of the morals and hypocrisy of high society were continued in the science of modern times.
The most important feature of the Renaissance is the revival of the natural science direction, the development of science and the growth of knowledge. A philosophy of nature arises, free from the direct subordination of religion (G. Bruno, B. Telesio, P. Pomponazzi). During this period, science is born not within the walls of universities, but in the workshops of artists, sculptures, engravers, architects, who were also engineers, mathematicians, technicians. These workshops have become real experimental laboratories. Here theoretical work and experience were combined. It was the activity of artists that laid the foundation for new problems in mechanics, optics, anatomy and other sciences. In the conditions of social requirements for artists of that time, they had to know all these branches of art, they must have knowledge of the construction of large structures. To accomplish the task of a realistic image, it was necessary to establish the rules of perspective and color in painting. There was a need for scientific explanation, and not only in observation, experience and talent, in attracting the help of the art of optics and mechanics, mathematics, anatomy. This need to find rules for the artist develops into the work of discovering the laws of nature.
16th century - the time of great discoveries in the field of mechanics, astronomy, mathematics. N. Copernicus (1473 - 1543), I. Kepler (1571 - 1630), J. Bruno (1548 - 1600), G. Galileo (1564 - 1642) stand at the origins of the classical science of modern times. Their significance lies in the fact that they proved that it is necessary to analyze real phenomena, processes and reveal laws, guided by the assumption that nature obeys the simplest rules. It is necessary to banish animistic ideas from the concepts of movement and force. The systematic work of theoretical scientific thinking begins. Great geographical discoveries of the XV - XVI centuries. (discovery of America by H. Columbus, first trip around the world F. Magellan and others) expanded their ideas about the world, asserted the primacy of experimental knowledge over book knowledge.
A new scientific methodology is gradually taking shape. Medieval methodology was predominantly deductive-syllogistic in nature: it was adapted only to finding internal relationships between ready-made positions and arguments and could not serve to find new truths that did not follow from old authorities (Holy Scripture, the works of the Church Fathers, the works of Aristotle, etc.) . The brilliant remarks of Leonardo da Vinci, the futile attempts to create a new methodology of Peter Ramus (1515 - 1572), who tragically died on St. Bartholomew's Night, later Kepler and Galileo trumpeted the world about a new methodology. Together with F. Bacon, some aspects of the new scientific method were clarified. Period spanning the 16th and 17th centuries. (from the time of the publication of "On the Revolution of the Celestial Spheres" by Copernicus - 1543, and until the publication of "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy" by Newton - 1687), meant a decisive turning point in the thinking of Western civilization, which undermined the authority of medieval science. It went down in history as the "scientific revolution". At the same time, the outstanding natural historian P. Duhem at the beginning of the 20th century. "discovered" the medieval predecessors of Galilean physics. This suggests that the birth modern science happened in the thirteenth century. The researcher tends to the idea of a continuous transition from the scholastic thinking of the Middle Ages to the science of the 17th century.
Of all areas of the natural sciences, in connection with their significance for psychology, the development in different countries medicine, human anatomy and physiology. T. Paracelsus (1493 - 1541) came up with a new theory about the nature of the human body, the causes and methods of treating diseases. In anatomy, Andrei Vesalius (1514 - 1564) published the fundamental work "On the Structure of the Human Body" (1543). The book replaced the anatomy of Galen, in which there were many errors, because he judged the structure of the human body on the basis of data that he drew from the anatomy of monkeys and dogs. The number of newly discovered body parts has steadily increased. The Italian contemporaries of Vesalius - G. Fallopius, B. Eustachius, I. Fabricius from Aquapendente and others - make a number of discoveries that have forever entered anatomy under their names.
Of great importance were the works of the physician and thinker Miguel Serveta (1509/1511 - 1553), his ideas on the pulmonary circulation (1553). A new era in anatomy, physiology and embryology began with the work of M. Malpighi (1628 - 1694) and research in experimental physiology. V. Harvey in 1628 solved the problem of blood circulation.
Thus, knowledge gradually developed through experience, which replaced dogma and scholasticism.
The German scholastics R. Goklenius and O. Kassman first introduced the term "" (1590). Prior to this, Philip Melanchthon (1497 - 1560), a German humanist, a friend of Luther, brought up under the influence of Erasmus, gave her a place of honor in his Commentary on the Soul. He was revered as an authority in the field of teaching psychology and dominated some German universities until the middle of the 18th century. The Spanish humanist, friend of Erasmus of Rotterdam, Juan Luis Vives (1492 - 1542), in his book "On the Soul and Life" (1538) argued that the main question is not what the soul is, but what are its manifestations and their connection. This indicates an increased interest in psychological questions and makes it possible to understand the successes of psychological analysis in the 17th century. F. Bacon and R. Descartes.
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