1. What did primitive people draw on the walls of caves?

2. What did the people of Ancient Egypt believe in?

1. Beliefs of primitive people. Observing the change of day and night, seasons, lightning and thunder, the life of plants and animals, ancient man could not understand and correctly explain what he saw. Disease and death perpetuated anxiety and horror in the minds of our distant ancestors.

Gradually, people began to develop ideas about supernatural forces supposedly capable of causing such phenomena. This was the beginning of religious ideas.

Man began to revere what his life depended on - the sun, earth, water, fire. Man animated all of nature in his imagination - populated it with the spirits of the earth, the sun, thunder, lightning, and vegetation. Our distant ancestor believed that trees have a soul, have feelings and can help in difficult times.

Primitive people explained sleep, fainting, and death by the exit of the spirit (soul) from the body. This is how the belief in an afterlife arose.

2. Mythology.Myth- This is an ancient folk legend about legendary heroes, gods, and the origin of various natural phenomena. Our distant ancestors developed their own mythology.

Since ancient times, on Belarusian lands there have been widespread myths about trees (oak, birch), about fern flowers (whoever finds one will be happy), about the origin of individual rivers, lakes, and swamps.

Belarusians, like other peoples, sought to explain in myths the world. There were numerous legends about mermaids, goblins, and brownies. An interesting legend was created about how Belun, from a handful of earth that grew very quickly, created the entire Universe.

This is interesting* One day Belun saw a ball floating past him. A plaintive meow was heard from there. Belun freed the prisoner from the ball. It turned out to be the devil. Belun told him about his desire to create the Universe and ordered him to go down to the bottom of the sea to take a handful of earth there. He obeyed. But while the devil was descending, the thought occurred to him that he himself could create the Universe. Therefore, the devil took handfuls of earth from the bottom of the sea, and hid some more in his mouth to fulfill his plan. Returning, he gave the land to Belun. He commanded: “Earth, grow!” A handful of earth began to grow and grow and turned into dry land. But at this time the earth, hidden by the devil in his mouth, also began to grow. His cheeks swelled and the earth began to bulge out of his mouth. The frightened devil ran away, leaving behind him a trail of earth that formed mountains and hills.

But in Polesie they say that when the devil reached their area, the reserves of earth in their mouths ran out, and therefore their land remained lowland and swamps formed here.

Belarusian mythology is a valuable source for studying the spiritual culture, beliefs and customs of our ancestors.

3. Funeral ceremonies. The custom of burial is associated with the emergence of the beliefs of ancient people that the soul of the deceased continues to exist after the death of a person.

The most common were two burial rites. According to the first ritual, the body of the deceased was buried in the ground, according to the second, it was burned in a fire. Fire was considered a sacred power. The dead man was given to him.

Ancient people believed that the person who died “in the next world” needed everything that he used during life. Therefore, the deceased was given his things, which he supposedly would need in the “afterlife.” These were tools and household utensils, jewelry, and weapons.

On the territory of Belarus there was a custom to build mounds over the graves. Dergai is a mound of sand or other soil.

The average height of the mound was 1-2 m. The largest number of ancient mounds were discovered in the Vitebsk and Gomel regions.

4. Primitive art.

Primitive art is associated with religious beliefs and rituals. Hunter-gatherers in the Stone Age already knew how to carve figures of people and animals from wood, stone, and bone.

An example of ancient art is sculpture- creating a three-dimensional image. This is evidenced by two figurines of people found in a parking lot near the village of Osovets, Beshenkovichi district in the Vitebsk region.

One wooden figurine. She quite accurately conveys the image of a man from the end of the Stone Age. Another image is carved from horn. It gives an idea of ​​a man with a long face, a high forehead and a sharp chin.

Ancient people made jewelry from the teeth of a wolf or bear. Jewelry was worn around the neck and sewn onto clothes. At the same time, they served as amulets. Wearing them, according to the ideas of that time, protected a person from danger and gave him strength in the struggle for existence.

At the end of the Stone Age, pottery ornamentation flourished in Belarus. Such parts of the ornament as a circle, a rhombus, and cross-shaped figures appeared. These signs were symbols of the Sun and other heavenly bodies, fertility, the eternity of nature, its cycle.

Questions and tasks

1. Explain the concepts: myth, sculpture, mound. 2. How did ancient man imagine the world around him?3. Who is Belun in ancient Belarusian mythology?4. Name the two main burial rites on Belarusian lands.5. How are religious beliefs and primitive art related?6. What was the meaning of the circle and diamond patterns?7. At which site in Belarus were human figurines found?8. What importance was attached to amulets in ancient times?

History of Belarus from ancient times to the middle of the 13th century. : textbook allowance for 6th grade. general education institutions with Russian language training / G. V. Shtykhov. S. N. Temushev, V. V. Rakut; edited by G. V. Shtykhova, Yu. N. Bokhana; lane from Belarusian, lang. L, G Kiseleva. - Minsk: Publishing house. center BSU 2009, 143 pp.: ill.

3. Spiritual culture and art of primitive man.

Pre-Indo-European period (Stone Age).

Prehistoricity is the earliest and longest stage in human history. In the course of attempts to study this era in science, several approaches and periodizations have emerged.

I) Periodization proposed by anthropologists is based on changes in the physical type of a person. The evolution of humans as a species began between 20-12 million years BC. and was not a single process, it went in several directions and represents the existence and development of several types of humanoid creatures. The following stages of human development are distinguished: the era of the existence of ancient man - archanthrope: it includes 1) a skilled person, or “Homo habilis” (it arose approximately 2.5 million years ago, it can be considered the first species of man, because in its physical characteristics it was superior to a monkey and used the first stone tools; 2) homo erectus, or "Homo erectus" (approximately 1.5 million years old) and 3) working person"Homo ergasten."

Second phase - paleoanthropes. These include Neanderthals: this type received its name from the Neanderthal River in Germany, in the valley of which its remains were first found. It was this type of person that first appeared on the territory of Belarus (southeast). The remains of Neanderthals indicate that they had heavy jaws, a very low forehead, prominent brow ridges, and their necks were designed in such a way that they could not turn their heads back and look up. In addition, based on the structure of the jaw, scientists concluded that the Neanderthal was incapable of articulate speech. Neanderthals existed in Europe and Belarus for many thousands of years, when about 35 thousand years BC. they were replaced by a new species of creatures.

Third stage – neoanthropes. The remains of these people were found for the first time in the Cro-Magnon cave, and this type of human being was called Cro-Magnon, or Humanohmreasonableth(“Homo sapiens”). Cro-Magnons spoke coherently, acted together, had greater knowledge and skills compared to other species, and most likely, these creatures exterminated the Neanderthals in the struggle for resources. These creatures were the first real people, their anatomical structure is similar to ours, in fact, from this time the history of the human race begins.

II) There is also a periodization of the primitive system, the criterion for which is the level of development of social relations in human society. In accordance with it, several stages are distinguished in primitiveness.

1) 100-40 thousand years BC – primitive herd (proto-community);

2) 40-5 thousand years BC. – early maternal community;

3) 5-2 thousand years BC. – patriarchal community;

4) 2nd millennium BC – 8th century AD - neighboring community.

III) Archaeological periodization distinguishes three large periods of primitive history - the Stone Age, the Bronze Age, and the Iron Age. The Stone Age is divided into Paleolithic (2.5 million years - 10 thousand years BC), Mesolithic (9 - 5 thousand years BC), Neolithic (5 - 3 thousand years BC .e.). In turn, the Paleolithic is also divided into three periods - the Lower, or Early Paleolithic (2.5 million - 100 thousand years BC), the Middle Paleolithic, or Mousterian period (100-35 thousand years ago), the Upper , or late Paleolithic (35-10 thousand years BC), Mesolithic (XII - V thousand BC) and Neolithic (V - III thousand BC - AD). The end of the Neolithic era, when the first copper tools appeared, is called the Eneolithic - the Copper-Stone Age. In addition, the Paleolithic and part of the Mesolithic correspond to the Ice Age - Pleistocene, Neolithic - refers to the post-glacial era - Holocene. Bronze Age - end of the 3rd millennium - 8-7 centuries. BC, Iron Age - 8-7 centuries. BC. – 7-8 centuries AD

The beginning of the Stone Age on the territory of Belarus falls on the Middle Paleolithic period; stone tools found near the villages of Svetilovichi, Podluzhzhe (Gomel region), Obidovichi (Mogilev region) date back to this time. It is believed that they were used by Neanderthals. The appearance of the Cro-Magnon man on the Belarusian lands dates back to the Late Paleolithic period (from 35 thousand BC). From this time, two sites have been preserved in Belarus - Yurovichi (24 thousand BC) and Berdyzh (21 thousand BC). During the excavations, the remains of half-dugouts with a hearth in the middle were found, built from the bones of large animals, covered with skin (these were mainly mammoths; the remains of 20 mammoths were found near Yurovichi), as well as a large number of flint tools (knives, scrapers, etc.). The production of fire by friction also dates back to this period. The main activities are collective hunting, fishing, and gathering.

Difficult living conditions forced people to unite: small groups of 20-30 people received in science the name pro-community or primitive human herd (this is typical for the Middle Paleolithic). In the Late Paleolithic, the main collective was the early maternal community (kinship in the community was along the maternal line (matriarchy)), which lived at one or more neighboring sites. The means of subsistence were obtained collectively; accordingly, communal and clan property existed, and products were distributed evenly among community members.

After the retreat of the last glacier from the territory of Belarus (15-13 thousand years ago), the territory became suitable for habitation and the modern geological era began (climate, relief, vegetation and animal world were similar to modern ones). The Mesolithic era began and it was during this period that the final settlement of the territory of Belarus took place, the permanent, so-called. autochthonous population, as the transition to a sedentary lifestyle begins. About 120 Mesolithic sites are known in Belarus; the total population was approximately 5-6 thousand people. The main tools were made from flint, wood or bone, the bow, hand mills, rafts, boats were invented, and the dog was domesticated.

The last period of the Stone Age is the Neolithic. This period got its name due to the emergence of new stone processing techniques - drilling, grinding. The growing demand for flint led to its extraction by mining. Ancient mines, which were used in 4 thousand BC, were found near Krasnoye Selo, Volkovysk district, Grodno region. Activities are expanding - crafts are emerging: weaving, pottery. The Neolithic is a very important period in primitive culture, since it was at this time that the transition from an appropriating economy (hunting, fishing, gathering) to a producing one (agriculture and livestock breeding) took place. neolithic revolution).

Even during the Mesolithic, the process of uniting clan communities into tribes was underway on the territory of Belarus. A tribe is a stable association of several clans that are connected by a common origin and blood ties. Around 4 thousand BC. The main groups of tribes of the Neolithic era arose: in the north - the Narva, in the east - the Upper Dnieper, in the west - the Neman, in the central part and south - the Dnieper-Donets. The sites Kamen (Brest region) and Osovets (Vitebsk region) belong to this period. All of them are distinguished by their dwellings, tools, household utensils, and ceramic ornamentation.

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Primitive man entered Europe approximately 40-35 thousand years ago. The people of that time are called Cro-Magnons. By appearance they look like modern ones. Cro-Magnons began to settle in the south of Belarus. The oldest human settlements (sites) were found by archaeologists on the banks of the Pripyat and Sozh rivers near the villages of Yurovichi and Berdyzh in the Gomel region. They existed approximately 24-21 thousand years BC. e. The remains of a hearth, flint tools, as well as bones and skulls of mammoths used for housing construction were discovered here.

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The primitive system on the territory of Belarus is divided by scientists into three periods (depending on what materials the tools were made from): Stone, Bronze, Iron Ages. The most important achievements of primitive people were the development of fire, the invention of pointed secant, cutting, and piercing tools.

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The Stone Age on the territory of Belarus ended approximately at the end of the 3rd millennium BC. e. During this period, several glacier advances occurred. Period Main types of occupations Paleolithic Driven hunting, gathering. Making fire. Manufacturing of hand axes and scrapers. Construction of primitive housing. Mesolithic Hunting, fishing. The appearance of the bow and arrow. Making bone tools. Neolithic The origin of agriculture and cattle breeding. Intertribal connections. Sedentary lifestyle. The emergence of ceramics and weaving. Silicon processing. Sawing, grinding and drilling of stone. Mining industry. Invention of the boat.

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The peculiarity of the activities of Stone Age people was that they took everything from nature in ready-made form. Such an economy is called a consumer (appropriating) economy. Primitive people gradually began to engage in individual hunting. A dog helped them in this - the first animal domesticated by man. An irreplaceable material for the production of tools was flint. It was mined in primitive mines - vertical wells 3-5 m deep, found by archaeologists near the village of Krasnoselsky, Volkovysk region.

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The first known group of people was the primitive human herd. The Cro-Magnons already lived in tribal communities that united 50-70 blood relatives. At the head of the community was an elected elder. Gradually, the clans united into tribes. Kinship was initially conducted through the maternal line, since women played a decisive role in the life of primitive society. This order is called the maternal clan, or matriarchy.

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The Bronze Age on the territory of Belarus lasted from the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. e. approximately until the end of the 8th century. BC e. At this time, copper and bronze products came from the south to the territory of Belarus. People began to domesticate more and more animals, and then moved on to breeding them. The first domestic animal was a pig. There is a transition from hunting to animal husbandry and from gathering to agriculture. It meant a transition from a consumer economy to a productive economy.

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At first, farming was by hoeing, when the main tool of labor was a hoe, and then by slash-and-burn. Ancient people cut down the forest, uprooted and burned stumps, used the ashes as fertilizer, and cultivated the land with a harrow. Sickles were used to harvest the crops, and flour was obtained from grain grinders. To preserve grain, as well as milk obtained from bred animals, flat-bottomed pottery was made.

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During the Bronze Age, Indo-Europeans gradually began to penetrate into the territory of Belarus - numerous tribes of nomadic livestock breeders who originally lived in Asia Minor. During the period of settlement in Europe, as a result of the mixing of Indo-Europeans with the local population, tribal associations of Germans, Slavs, and Balts arose.

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The Iron Age on the territory of Belarus began around the 7th century. BC e. People learned to mine iron ore. It was called swamp because this raw material was found by its brown color in a swamp or under turf in a meadow. The ore was smelted in cheese-blowing furnaces made of clay into a porous mass - cast iron. Agriculture gradually developed and became arable. When cultivating the land, they used a wooden furrow with an iron tip.

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Primitive society in the Stone, Bronze and Iron Ages in Belarus.

PERIODIZATION:

1) Stone (from 3 million years BC to 3 thousand years BC):

2) Bronze (2 thousand BC - beginning of the 1st millennium BC)

3) Iron (1st millennium BC – IV-V century AD)

Stages of development of a primitive society:

1. Primitive herd

2. Early clan community (matriarchy)

3. Late clan community (patriarchy)

4. Decomposition of the primitive society, the beginning of the formation of classes

Austrolapithecus (Habilis) - Archanthropus (erectus) - Paleoanthropus (Neanderthal) - Neoanthropus (Cro-Magnon).

Processed silicon tools were found near Svetilovichi, the villages of Obidovichi, Kleevichi.

People lived in a maternal-clan community. They shared hunting, fishing, and gathering.

Activities of primitive man:

Appropriating economy: hunting (driven, individual using a bow and arrow), fishing, gathering, beekeeping.

BRONZE AGE.

Agriculture and livestock breeding are becoming the leading occupations of people. Spinning and weaving became more common.

In the family and society, the man took a dominant position. Stands out tribal nobility(council of men - warriors, military leaders), the former equality of rights is violated, private property arises.

In Belarus there were no local deposits of copper and tin, the alloy of which produces bronze, so they were brought mainly from the Caucasus.

IRON AGE.

From iron ore to cheese cesspools(furnaces made of clay) smelted shouty iron.

Property inequality has arisen, which leads to wars. People begin to create fortifications - fortifications. Unions of clans unite into tribes, and the formation of the rudiments of statehood begins.

The settlement of the territory of Belarus by the Slavs (Krivichi, Dregovichi, Radimichi). Kievan Rus.

The territory of Belarus was inhabited by East Slavic tribes: Krivichi, Dregovich, Radimichi.

DREGOVICHI. (from “drygva” - swamp) settled between the river. Pripyat and Zap. Dvina in Polesie.

KRIVICHI. (from “blooded”, close in blood or “crooked territory”, hilly on which they lived) settled in the upper reaches of the Dnieper, Western. Dvina, Volga and Lake Peipus. Those who lived in the upper reaches of the West. The Dvinas were called Polochanachi. The Polotsk Krivichi had their own “reign,” i.e. original public education. They gathered for veche meetings to discuss common affairs, rituals, and trade relations. RADIMICI. (named after Prince Radzim) settled along the river. Sozh., their center was Gomel + Krichev, Chechersk, Rechitsa and Rogochev. They were the weakest; they never managed to create their own statehood, because... in 885 the Kiev prince obliged them to pay him tribute, and before that they had paid tribute to the Khazars. In 984 Kiev prince Vladimir Svyatoslavovich sent an army led by a governor to the Radimichi; a battle took place on the Peschana River, as a result of which the Radimichi were defeated.

Territory modern Belarus was located on the western outskirts of Kievan Rus. At first, the Polotsk and Turov principalities existed here. As feudal relations developed, some principalities made attempts to break away from the power of Kyiv.

Ancient beliefs and primitive art in Belarus.

The spiritual culture of the primitive society was:

1. Fetishism(belief in the extraordinary abilities of nature, stones, trees or man-made objects (fetish))

2. Animism(belief in the existence of spirits and souls that have human characteristics and influence all living things)

3. Totemism(belief in common ancestry, family ties between a group of people and a particular species of animal or plant)

With the advent of agriculture and animal husbandry, new beliefs of people arose. They began to deify the Sun ( sun worship, the cult of the Sun is evidenced by solar symbolism), sky, rain…. The main gods (by the end of the 10th century): Perun (god of warriors, weapons, wars, thunder and lightning), Stribog (sky and universe), Give God (sun, nature), Makosh (god of the Earth and fertility).

Great importance attached clothes e (symbolic ornament, embroidery along the edges of clothing to protect against evil spirits). Was distributed ancestor cult(dzyady, rainbow). There were rituals, round dances, conspiracies, spells, songs.....Previously there was a cult of ghouls (vampires), beregins (mermaids), and brownies. In the Bronze Age, belief in an afterlife appeared, rituals appeared sacrifices, funeral, wedding

The attitude of ancient people to the surrounding world was expressed not only in religion, but also in art. His first monuments were figurines (women, men, elk, ducks; found at the Eliseevich site in the Bryansk region woman figurine, dating from the Upper Paleolithic). Ornament appeared in the Bronze Age (the appearance of corded ornament is associated with the Indo-Europeans). The appearance of musical instruments (the first were drums). The first archaeological find – pipe, made from a bird bone. It belonged to the Upper Paleolithic and was found at the Asovets site. There were various kinds of jewelry - silver, bronze pendants, skillfully made beads.

5.The first principalities on the territory of Belarus: Polotsk (PK) and Turov (TK).

PRINCIPALITY OF POLOTSK

PC arose in the middle reaches of the Western Dvina in the 9th century and occupied the entire modern central and northern Belarus. Polotsk itself was first mentioned under 862(the city was located on the Western Dvina River, which was part of the most important trade route “from the Varangians to the Greeks”; the advantageous settlement contributed to the rapid growth of Polotsk and its transformation into a major center of crafts and trade).

Around 970-980 To Rogneda The princes of Novgorod and Kyiv were wooed. She preferred Yaropolk (Prince of Kyiv). Insulted, Vladimir attacked the PC. He took Rogneda by force. He took him to his place (Vladimir gave Rogneda a new name, Gorislava). She became one of the concubines, so she tried to kill Vladimir, but he woke up and pulled out a knife. Son Izyaslav saved my mother. Then Vladimir gathered a boyar council to solve the problem. Rogneda was released back because... Vladimir converted to Christianity and abandoned polygamy. Rognede and Izyaslav were exiled to the Principality of Polotsk in Zaslavl, which made it possible to restore the Polotsk princely dynasty. At the end of her life, Rogneda entered a monastery under the name Anastasia and died in 1000. Izyaslav spread Christianity and writing on the territory of Belarus. Died in 1001

After the uprising of the Kievites (September 15, 1068), he was made the Grand Duke of Kyiv, but after 7 months. Vseslav returned to Polotsk. After the death of Vseslav, the PC split into a number of separate principalities, and a period of feudal fragmentation began. The control system in a PC is characterized as princely veche system. Veche- a general meeting of adult men to resolve public and state issues, which could remove and appoint a prince. Duties of the Prince: organization and command of troops, collection of tribute, execution of justice. The prince's support was the squad (an armed detachment of people specially trained in military affairs) and the people's militia. The veche invited the prince to reign, expelled the unwanted prince, declared war and peace, regulated trade and economic relations and was the highest court. The main law was "Russian Truth" Yaroslav the Wise.

PRINCIPALITY OF TUROV (TK)

The first mention of Turov 980g. The first chronicle prince is Tur. Territory: left bank of the Pripyat River with the cities of Turov, Pinsk, Slutsk, Brest. Until the end of the 10th century. The Principality of Turov developed as an independent one. A dynasty of princes ruled here. From the end of the 10th century. the son of the Grand Duke of Kyiv reigns in Turov Svyatopolk, who fought for the independence of the principality. Svyatopolk marries a Polish princess and invites Catholic Bishop Rainburn to Turov. In 1015, Vladimir, Prince of Kiev, dies and Svyatopolk becomes Prince of Kyiv. The struggle for Kyiv begins between Yaroslav the Wise and Svyatopolk, which ended in 1019 at the Battle of the Alta River(Yaroslav won). In Turov, the son of Yaroslav the Wise, Izyaslav, became the prince, whose dynasty ruled in Turov until 1113. And in 1150. Yuri Yaroslavovich took possession of the TK and restored the Izyaslavovich dynasty, which ruled Turov until his entry into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

6. The origin of feudal relations, the socio-economic development of Belarusian lands in the 9th - mid-12th centuries.

In the 9th – 12th centuries. at Eastern Slavs folds up feudal system(in connection with the emergence of private property and property inequality). The land, which was previously in the possession of the rural community, becomes the private property of individual community members (elders, leaders...). From them a class is formed feudal lords. And previously free peasants, community members (“people”) fell into feudal dependence and performed various duties in favor of landowners. There were such groups of dependent peasants: servants (served at the court of the feudal lord), smerdas (semi-free peasants), serfs (almost slaves, completely lost personal freedom), purchases (became dependent for debts), ryadovichi (became dependent under a contract).

There was 2 forms of feudal land tenure:

Patrimonial property (with the right of sale, division, inheritance)

Local (with the right of temporary use for service with the prince)

In the 9th – 12th centuries. happened on the territory of Belarus emergence of cities. Causes: separation of crafts that required special skills from agriculture; settlement of artisans in places close to sources of raw materials necessary for their activities; development of exchange of products for goods and trade.

The most ancient Belarusian city is considered Polotsk(862), then Vitebsk (974), Turov (980) according to the Tale of Bygone Years. In total, the chronicle mentions more than 30-35 names of cities that existed on the territory of Belarus in the 9th – 13th centuries.

The city consisted of several parts. The city center, fortified with ramparts, ditches, and walls, was called "child". The settlements of artisans and traders that arose near the fortified center were called plantings. Usually, by the will of the Detinets, there was a market or bargain. Early feudal cities were small: from several hundred to several thousand inhabitants. The dwellings of ordinary townspeople were wooden log houses. Churches were usually built of wood, stone and brick. Princely towers (palaces) were built on several floors. The streets (they were called “ends”) were narrow, extending in different directions from the center.

Cities were also trade centers. The route passed through the territory of Belarus "from the Varangians to the Greeks": from the Baltic Sea to the West. The Dvina is then dragged to the Dnieper and along the Dnieper to the Black Sea. From Belarus were transporting fur, wax, honey. They delivered fabrics, glassware, spices, decorations, olive oil.

7. Feudal fragmentation in Belarus. Disintegration of the Polotsk and Turov principalities into appanage principalities. Time from the beginning of the 12th century. until the end of the fifteenth century. called a period feudal fragmentation or specific period. Feudal fragmentation is a process of economic strengthening and political isolation of individual lands. This process was determined by economic and political reasons: a) development of feudal relations, strengthening the power of local feudal lords, b) growing importance of economic and political centers. This period began during Vseslav’s lifetime, when he, fearing a struggle for land redistribution, was forced to divide the “fatherland” between his sons, who began further reshaping the territory, which inevitably led to the fragmentation of this single and powerful principality. As a result, the Principality of Polotsk was fragmented first into 6 and then more appanages. Actually, Polotsk was given to the eldest of the sons, Davyd.

The Principality of Turov also suffered the fate of being split into appanages. In 1142 it was divided into such appanages as Brest, Kletsk, Rogachev, Drogichin, Chertoriysk. By the beginning of the 13th century, TK had lost its former political significance. Pinsk, Brest, and Slutsk acquired increasing independence. Pinsk became, as it were, the second capital of the principality.

8. The struggle of the Belarusian principalities with the crusaders and Mongol-Tatars. Foreign policy situation at the end of the 12th - first half of the 13th centuries.

CRUSADERS

At the end of the 12th century at the mouth of the West. German knights landed on Dvina under the guise of spreading Catholicism (eradicating paganism); they sought to enslave the local population. IN 1201g The Riga fortress was founded under the Catholic Bishop Albert. In 1202, the Order of the Swordsmen was created, which began to expand its territories, trying to control the trade route “from the Varangians to the Greeks” and seize the right to collect tribute from the Livs. ( order is a military organization of church and secular feudal lords). In this their interests clashed with the PC, so summer 1203 Prince Vladimir organized a campaign and captured the fortresses of Ikskul and Golm. In the fight against the crusaders during the defense of the fortified city, Kukeinois distinguished himself Prince Vyachka. He defeated them several times, but 1208g was forced to burn his fortress. In 1209, Herzike was captured and burned by the crusaders. 5 times they tried to capture Polotsk. In 1210 it was concluded between the Bishop of Riga Albert and Vladimir (a peace beneficial to the crusaders). In 1216, a large campaign was prepared jointly by the Polotsk squads with the Liv and Estonian tribes against the crusaders. (the campaign did not take place because Prince Vladimir was poisoned). Then another peace was concluded, which was called “Smolensk Trade Truth” (peace of Polotsk, Vitebsk and Smolensk with Riga). .

The Crusaders threatened not only Polotsk, but also Novgorod, which led them to political unification. So in 1240 at the Battle of the Neva(Yakov the Polotsk resident became famous), and then in 1242, in the Battle of Lake Peipus (“Battle of the Ice”), joint Novgorod-Polotsk troops under the leadership of Alexander Yaroslavovich (Al. Nevsky) won brilliant victories over the German knights.

MONGOLO-TATARS

From the east, Tatar-Mongol hordes began to invade Russian lands. IN 1223g The Tatars defeated the united army of Russian and Polovtsian princes on the river. Kalka. Prince Yuri Nesvizhsky died in the battle. By 1240, the Tatar-Mongols captured all Russian lands and part of the West. Europe, Created their own state - Golden Horde.

9. Culture of Belarusian lands in the 9th – mid-13th centuries. Spread of Christianity on the territory of Belarus.

SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY.

In 988 Kiev Prince Vladimir adopted Christianity as a state. religion. In this regard, he abandoned polygamy. A clergy appeared, headed by the metropolitan, and the bishops were subordinate to him. Following this, Christianity was adopted by the highest nobility of Polotsk, but there were Christians in Polotsk even earlier, at the beginning of the 9th century: Polotsk warriors who were part of Byzantium, Rogneda, Izyaslav, etc. After the official adoption of the faith, they began to create dioceses(religious-Christian districts). In 992 in Polotsk(Vitebsk, Mensk, Orsha, Zaslavl, Braslav, Logoisk), in 1005 - in Turov(Gomel, Brest, Grodno regions). Churches and monasteries began to be opened: in the 12th century, near Polotsk, Euphrosyne of Polotsk founded the women's Holy Savior and the men's Holy Mother of God monasteries; Results of the spread of Christianity:

The development of the culture of the Eastern Slavs, the spread of writing, chronicle writing.

The beginning of stone architecture

Development of crafts and trade with other countries

Creation of artistic values.

RELIGIOUS AND EDUCATIONAL FIGURES:

Euphrosyne of Polotsk.

Predslava. As a girl she ran away to convent, became a nun under the name Euphrosyne, copied church books, founded a school for children, a monastery, and in her later years made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. During which she died in 1167. The relics were in the Kiev Pechersk Lavra, and in 1910 they were transferred to the Polotsk Spaso-Ephrosyne Monastery. The first saint.

WRITING.

The news of writing among the Eastern Slavs dates back to the 10th and early 11th centuries. It was Cyrillic. First monuments writing in Bel: “Borisov stones” (4 boulders with inscriptions) - in line with the West. Dvina (12th century), “Rogvolodov stone” - near Orsha, wooden comb with letters of the alphabet - in Brest, birch bark letters in Vitebsk and Mstislavl - 13th century.

STONE ARCHITECTURE. FRESCOES

Towards the end of the 10th century, with the adoption of Christianity, the construction of monumental religious buildings began - in the mid-11th century in Polotsk a stone Saint Sophia Cathedral(7 domes, frescoes, library, archive, state treasury; plinth - flat brick - was used during construction).

In the 13th century, defensive structures, because of the threat from the Crusaders and Tatars: Belaya Vezha tower in Kamenets (30 meters).

In the 11th-13th centuries - fresco painting. Fresco– water-based paints on fresh plaster. The walls of the St. Sophia and Spassky Cathedrals, Vitebsk, Annunciation Churches, etc. are decorated with frescoes depicting biblical stories and figures of saints.

Related information.

Question 5. Spiritual culture of primitive society

Human economic activity contributed to the appearance in the Late Paleolithic ( 40-10 thousand years ago) belief in the existence of supernatural forces. The oldest religious ideas are totemism (belief in a supernatural connection between a person and an animal or plant); fetishism (belief in the supernatural properties of inanimate objects); animism (belief in the existence of souls and spirits). From the totality of rituals and ceremonies formed cults animals, natural phenomena, inanimate objects. One of the first to arise was the cult of fire. An integral part cults was magic - belief in the ability of man, through special actions, to supernaturally influence nature and man. In relation to the Paleolithic and Mesolithic, it is still unlawful to call objects of worship of ancient people gods or deities. There are very few finds on the territory of Belarus from the Paleolithic and Mesolithic periods that would make it possible to get a complete picture of the religion and art of the ancient people of this region. A plate made of mammoth tusk, covered with a scale-like ornament (20-25 thousand years old), was found in Yurovichi. Near Smorgon, they found a fragment of a horn item covered with a pattern of rifling and dots. As amulets, talismans, amulets ancient people used the fangs of totem animals (wolf, bear, wild boar).

Data from excavations of settlements of the period Neolithic (5-3 thousand years BC) indicate the spread of the cults of elk, duck, heron, and snake. The Neolithic is characterized by cults associated with agriculture and cattle breeding; sun, hearth, horse.

In the Iron Age ( VII century BC e. - V century n. e.) has developed pantheon of pagan gods, which represented the forces of nature that are significant to humans: thunderstorms. Sun, rain, water.

The development of religious ideas about the soul and the afterlife contributed to the emergence ancestor cult and funeral rites. On the territory of Belarus in the Bronze and Early Iron Ages, two types of burials were common: cremation And mortem . A mound was built over the grave. Near the village of Khodosovichi (Rogachevsky district) there are burial mounds from the Bronze Age.

Primitive art , combining magical and aesthetic functions, is represented by ornaments, decorations, and figurines. Paleolithic art depicted the flora and fauna. Images of humans are rare and sketchy. Interest in human images is characteristic of the Neolithic. During the Metal Age, ornaments - symbols of the Sun - became widespread. During this period, products made of copper and bronze (pendants, temple rings, torcs) appeared. During rituals, ancient people used musical instruments : winds (pipes, pipes) and percussion (tambourines, drums).

Question 6. Settlement of the Slavs on the territory of Belarus

In the middle of the 3rd millennium BC. e. Slavic tribes began to emerge from the Indo-European community. This process took approximately 500 years. Among scientists there is still no consensus about the ancestral home of the Slavs. Most modern researchers believe that the Slavs as an ethnocultural community formed in the basin of the Elbe (Laba), Oder, and Vistula rivers. About the life and morals of the Slavs ("Venedov") wrote ancient Roman authors of the 1st-2nd centuries. Byzantine historians of the 6th century. They called them Ants and Sklavins.

Slavic tribes in the 6th century. became involved in migration processes known as the “Great Migration of Peoples”. The social structure of the Slavs during this period is characterized as "military democracy". In the II-III centuries. The Slavs reached the Balkan Peninsula and penetrated into Central and South-Eastern Europe. In the V-VII centuries. Prague archaeological culture, which all scientists consider Slavic, spread to the south of Belarus. In the VI-VII centuries. the single Slavic ethnic community split into western, southern and eastern Slavs In the VIII-X centuries. There is a massive resettlement of Eastern Slavs across the territory of Belarus. At the same time, the Slavic tribes displaced or assimilated the Balts. In the territory occupied by the Slavs, small areas occupied by the Balts remained.

According to the ancient Russian chronicle "The Tale of Bygone Years", the territory of modern Belarus was occupied by three tribal unions - Krivichi, Dregovichi, Radimichi. The Krivichi settled in the Podvinia and Upper Dnieper regions, on the Upper Volga, in the north of Lake Peipsi. Scientists divide this large association of Slavic tribes into three parts: Krivichi of Polotsk, Smolensk and Pskov. The Dregovichi occupied the southern and central parts of Belarus. The Radimichi occupied lands in the basin of the Sozh and Iput rivers.

Modern scientists believe that on the territory of Belarus in the 9th-10th centuries. Slavic-Baltic synthesis took place. In support of this, linguists point out that the Slavic-Baltic origin of the Krivichi, Radimichi and Dregovichi is confirmed by the names of these communities: the roots of the names are Baltic, and the element “ichi” is Slavic. Slavic tribes lived in the border areas of Belarus Dulebs, Drevlyans, Volynians, Buzhans. The Baltic tribes of the Yatvingians and Lithuanians coexisted with the Slavs.

The main economic activities of the Slavs were slash-and-burn (in the north and center of Belarus), arable farming (in the south) and cattle breeding. Hunting, fishing, beekeeping were of great importance, and various crafts developed (pottery, blacksmithing, jewelry, etc.).