The agreement between Russia and France, concluded in Tilsit in 1807, was temporary. The continental blockade of Great Britain, to which Russia was forced to join in accordance with the terms of the Peace of Tilsit, undermined the country's economy, which was focused on export trade. Export turnover decreased from 120 million to 83 million rubles, import supplies exceeded exports and created conditions for an outburst of inflationary processes. In addition, exporters suffered from high duties imposed by France, which made foreign trade unprofitable. The economic decline and the precariousness of the peace with Napoleon forced Alexander I to prepare for war. For Bonaparte, Russia was an obstacle that stood in his way to world domination.

Thus, the causes of the Patriotic War of 1812 were:

1. the desire of Napoleon Bonaparte and the French bourgeoisie supporting him to establish world hegemony, which was impossible without the defeat and subjugation of Russia and Great Britain;

2. aggravation of contradictions between Russia and France, intensified both as a result of Russia’s non-compliance with the conditions of the continental blockade, and Napoleon’s support of anti-Russian sentiments in Poland, supporting local magnates in their aspirations to recreate the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth within its former borders;

3. Russia’s loss of former influence in Central Europe as a result of France’s conquests, as well as Napoleon’s actions aimed at undermining its international authority;

4. the increase in personal hostility between Alexander I and Napoleon I, caused both by the refusal of the Russian side to marry the Grand Duchesses Catherine, then Anna, to the French Emperor, as well as Napoleon’s hints about Alexander’s involvement in the murder of his father, Emperor Paul I.

The course of military operations (the retreat of the Russian army).

Napoleon's army, which he himself called the "Great Army", numbered over 600,000 people and 1,420 guns. In addition to the French, it included the national corps of European countries conquered by Napoleon, as well as the Polish corps of Prince Jozef Anton Poniatowski.

Napoleon's main forces were deployed in two echelons. The first (444,000 people and 940 guns) consisted of three groups: the right wing, led by Jerome Bonaparte (78,000 people, 159 guns) was supposed to move to Grodno, diverting as many Russian forces as possible; the central group under the command of Eugene Beauharnais (82,000 people, 208 guns) was supposed to prevent the connection of the 1st and 2nd Russian armies; The left wing, led by Napoleon himself (218,000 people, 527 guns), moved to Vilna - it was assigned the main role in the entire campaign. In the rear, between the Vistula and Oder, there remained a second echelon - 170,000 people, 432 guns and a reserve (Marshal Augereau's corps and other troops).

The “Great Army” was opposed by 220 - 240 thousand Russian soldiers with 942 guns. In addition, as noted above, the Russian troops were divided: the 1st Western Army under the command of the Minister of War, Infantry General M.B. Barclay de Tolly (110 - 127 thousand people with 558 guns) stretched over 200 km from Lithuania to Grodno in Belarus; 2nd Western Army led by Infantry General P.I. Bagration (45 - 48 thousand people with 216 guns) occupied a line up to 100 km east of Bialystok; 3rd Western Army of Cavalry General A.P. Tormasova (46,000 people with 168 guns) stood in Volyn near Lutsk. On the right flank of the Russian troops (in Finland) was the corps of Lieutenant General F.F. Steingel (19 thousand people with 102 guns), on the left flank - the Danube Army of Admiral P.V. Chichagov (57 thousand people with 202 guns).

Given the enormous size and power of Russia, Napoleon planned to complete the campaign in three years: in 1812, to capture the western provinces from Riga to Lutsk, in 1813 - Moscow, in 1814 - St. Petersburg. Such gradualism would allow him to dismember Russia, providing rear support and communications for the army operating over vast areas. The conqueror of Europe did not count on a blitzkrieg, although he intended to one by one quickly defeat the main forces of the Russian army in the border areas.

On the evening of June 24 (11), 1812, a patrol of the Life Guards Cossack Regiment under the command of the cornet Alexander Nikolayevich Rubashkin noticed a suspicious movement on the Neman River. When it became completely dark, a company of French sappers crossed the river from the elevated and wooded Polish bank to the Russian bank on boats and ferries, with whom a shootout took place. This happened three miles up the river from Kovno (Kaunas, Lithuania).

At 6 o'clock in the morning on June 25 (12), the vanguard of the French troops had already entered Kovno. The crossing of 220 thousand soldiers of the Great Army near Kovno took 4 days. The river was crossed by the 1st, 2nd, 3rd infantry corps, guards and cavalry. Emperor Alexander I was at a ball hosted by Leonty Leontyevich Bennigsen in Vilna, where he was informed about Napoleon's invasion.

June 30 (17) - July 1 (June 18) near Prena south of Kovno, another group crossed the Neman (79 thousand soldiers: 6th and 4th infantry corps, cavalry) under the command of the Viceroy of Italy, Napoleon's stepson, Eugene Beauharnais. Almost simultaneously, on July 1 (June 18), even further south, near Grodno, the Neman crossed 4 corps (78-79 thousand soldiers: 5th, 7th, 8th infantry and 4th cavalry corps) under the overall command of the King of Westphalia, brother Napoleon, Jerome Bonaparte.

In the northern direction near Tilsit, the Niemen crossed the 10th Corps of Marshal Etienne Jacques Macdonald. In the southern direction, from Warsaw through Bugn, a separate Austrian corps of General Karl Philipp Schwarzenberg (30-33 thousand soldiers) began to invade.

On June 29 (16), Vilna was occupied. Napoleon, having arranged state affairs in occupied Lithuania, left the city following his troops only on July 17 (4).

The French emperor targeted the 10th corps (32 thousand people) of Marshal E.Zh. MacDonald to St. Petersburg. First, the corps had to occupy Riga, and then, connecting with the 2nd Corps of Marshal Charles Nicolas Oudinot (28 thousand people), move on. The basis of MacDonald's corps were 20 thousand Prussian soldiers under the command of General Yu.A. Graverta.

Marshal MacDonald approached the fortifications of Riga, however, lacking siege artillery, he stopped at the distant approaches to the city. The military governor of Riga, General Ivan Nikolaevich Essen, burned the outskirts and prepared for defense. Trying to support Oudinot, Macdonald captured the abandoned city of Dinaburg (now Daugavpils in Latvia) on the Western Dvina River and stopped active operations, waiting for siege artillery from East Prussia. The Prussian military from MacDonald's corps avoided active combat clashes in a war that was foreign to them, however, they offered active resistance and repeatedly repulsed the attacks of the defenders of Riga with heavy losses.

Marshal Oudinot, having occupied the city of Polotsk, decided to bypass from the north the separate corps of General Pyotr Christianovich Wittgenstein (17 thousand people with 84 guns), allocated by the commander-in-chief of the 1st Army M.B. Barclay de Tolly during the retreat through Polotsk to defend the St. Petersburg direction.

Fearing a connection between Oudinot and MacDonald, P.H. Wittgenstein, unexpectedly for the enemy, attacked Oudinot's corps near Klyastitsy.

On July 29 (16), near the town of Vilkomir, 3 French cavalry regiments (12 squadrons) were unexpectedly attacked by 4 squadrons of the Grodno Hussar Regiment under the command of Major General Yakov Petrovich Kulnev and the Don Cossacks of Lieutenant Colonel Ivan Ivanovich Platov 4th (nephew of M.I. Platov) , Major Ivan Andreevich Selivanov 2nd, Colonel Mark Ivanovich Rodionov 2nd. Despite their numerical superiority, the French were overthrown and their advance stopped for several hours. Then, while on reconnaissance, near the village of Chernevo, the hussars and Cossacks Ya.P. Kulneva attacked units of the cavalry division of General Sebastiani. The enemy suffered heavy losses.

At the same time, Marshal Oudinot occupied the village of Klyastitsy, having 28 thousand soldiers and 114 guns against the Russians 17 thousand. However, General P.Kh. Wittgenstein decided to attack, taking advantage of the stretched French forces. The vanguard of Ya.P. moved ahead. Kulneva (3,700 horsemen, 12 guns), followed by the main forces of P.Kh. Wittgenstein (13 thousand soldiers, 72 guns).

July 31 (18) at 2 o'clock in the afternoon, the Russian vanguard under the command of Ya.P. Kulneva collided with the French vanguard near the village of Yakubovo. The encounter battle continued until the end of the day. Ya.P. Kulnev tried to oust the French from the village, but after a series of fierce battles the French held this settlement.

On August 1 (July 19), the main Russian forces entered the battle, and after several attacks and counterattacks, Yakubovo was captured. Oudinot was forced to retreat to Klyastitsy.

To continue the attack on Klyastitsy, it was necessary to cross the Nishcha River. Oudinot ordered the construction of a powerful battery and ordered the destruction of the only bridge. While the detachment of Ya.P. Kulneva was crossed by a ford to bypass the French positions, the 2nd battalion of the Pavlovsk Grenadier Regiment attacked directly across the burning bridge. The French were forced to retreat.

General Ya.P. Kulnev continued the pursuit with 2 cavalry regiments together with the Cossacks I.I. Platov 4th, I.A. Selivanov 2nd, M.I. Rodionov 2nd, infantry battalion and artillery battery. After crossing the Drissa River on August 2 (July 20), he was ambushed near the village of Boyarshchino. The French artillery shot at Y.P.’s detachment. Kulneva from the commanding heights. He himself was mortally wounded.

Pursuing the Russian vanguard, the division of French General Jean Antoine Verdier, in turn, came across the main forces of General P.Kh. Wittgenstein and was completely destroyed. P.H. Wittgenstein was slightly wounded.

Marshal Oudinot retreated beyond the Dvina, leaving behind fortified Polotsk. Thus, the French offensive on St. Petersburg failed. Moreover, fearing the actions of General P.Kh. Wittgenstein on the supply routes of the Great Army, the French emperor was forced to weaken the main group of troops by sending the corps of General Gouvillon Saint-Cyr to help Oudinot.

In the main direction, the Moscow direction, the Russian troops, retreating, fought rearguard battles, inflicting significant losses on the enemy. The main task was to unite the forces of the 1st and 2nd Western armies. The position of Bagration's 2nd Army, which was threatened by encirclement, was especially difficult. It was not possible to get through to Minsk and connect with Barclay de Tolly’s army there, because. the path was cut off. Bagration changed the direction of movement, but the troops of Jerome Bonaparte overtook him. On July 9 (June 27), near the town of Mir, a rearguard battle of Russian troops took place, the basis of which was the Cossack cavalry of Ataman M.I. Platov with the best part of Napoleonic cavalry - the Polish cavalry regiments. The Polish lancers, who fell into the Cossack front, were defeated and hastily retreated. The next day a new battle took place, and again the Don people won.

July 14 (2) - July 15 (3) near the town of Romanovo, Cossacks M.I. Platov held back the French for 2 days to allow army convoys to cross Pripyat. Platov's successful rearguard battles allowed the 2nd Army to freely reach Bobruisk and concentrate its forces. All attempts to surround Bagration failed. Napoleon was furious that the Cossacks M.I. Platov destroyed the 1st Cavalry Regiment of Lieutenant Colonel Pshependovsky and the squadron of the 12th Uhlan Regiment, and also thoroughly “battered” other units of General Latour-Maubourg’s corps. And his officers and soldiers were surprised and delighted that their wounded comrades who were captured (there were 360 ​​prisoners in total, including 17 officers) received medical care and care and were left in Romanov.

Bagration decided to advance to Mogilev. And in order to occupy the city before the French approached, he sent there the 7th Infantry Corps of Lieutenant General N.N. Raevsky and the brigade of Colonel V.A. Sysoev, which consisted of 5 Don Cossack regiments. But Marshal Davout's corps entered Mogilev much earlier. As a result, on July 23 (11), the corps N.N. Raevsky had to repel the advance of superior enemy forces between the villages of Saltanovka and Dashkovka. N.N. Raevsky personally led soldiers into battle. Both sides suffered heavy casualties; The enemy was driven back in fierce bayonet attacks, but the plan to break through Mogilev had to be abandoned. There was only one way left - to Smolensk. The fierce resistance of the Russians misled Davout. He decided that he was fighting the main forces of Bagration. The Napoleonic commander began to strengthen himself near the village of Saltanovka, expecting a second Russian offensive. Thanks to this, Bagration gained time, managed to cross the Dnieper and break away from the French on the way to Smolensk.

At this time, the 3rd Western Army of Alexander Petrovich Tormasov operated very successfully. Already on July 25 (13), the Russians liberated the city of Brest-Litovsk, captured by French units. On July 28 (16), the Tormasov captured Kobrin, capturing a 5,000-strong detachment of the Saxon Major General Klengel, led by himself.

On August 11 (July 30) in the battle of Gorodechno, Lieutenant General E.I. Markov repelled an attack by superior French forces. After these successes, the Southwestern Front stabilized. And here significant enemy forces were pinned down for a long time.

Meanwhile, important changes took place in the leadership of the Russian troops. On July 19 (7), Emperor Alexander I, who was in the 1st Western Army with his entire retinue, which greatly hampered the normal staff and operational work of the army, left for St. Petersburg. Barclay de Tolly got the opportunity to fully implement his plan for waging war against Napoleon, developed by him in 1810 - 1812. In general terms, it boiled down to the following: firstly, to avoid a general battle and retreat deeper into the country so as not to expose the army to the danger of defeat; secondly, to weaken the superior enemy forces and gain time to prepare fresh troops and militia.

Barclay de Tolly led the 1st Army to Vitebsk, where he hoped to wait for Bagration. Vanguard of the army under the command of A.I. Osterman-Tolstoy was sent to the village of Ostrovno to delay the French advance.

On July 24 (12), the battle with the advancing enemy began. The cavalry corps of Lieutenant General F.P. was sent to help Osterman-Tolstoy. Uvarov and the 3rd Infantry Division of Lieutenant General P.P. Konovnitsyn, which replaced the Osterman-Tolstoy building. After 3 days of stubborn fighting with the superior forces of Marshal Murat, Konovnitsyn began to slowly, with fighting, retreat to the Luchesa River, where all of Barclay’s forces had already concentrated.

The fierce resistance of the Russians prompted Napoleon to think that they were ready to give the general battle that he so wanted. The French emperor brought his entire 150,000-strong group here (against 75,000 Russians). But Barclay de Tolly, having deployed the corps of Major General P.P. as cover. Palena broke away from the French and moved towards Smolensk. The troops of Marshals Ney and Murat were thrown onto the flank and rear of the Russian army. In their vanguard was the division of General Horace Francois Sebastiniani, consisting of 9 cavalry and 1 infantry regiments. On July 27 (15), near the village of Molevo Boloto, they clashed in a fierce battle with 7 Cossack regiments and 12 guns of the Don horse artillery under the overall command of Ataman M.I. Platova. The French were defeated and fled, pursued by the Don, and the hussars of P.P., who joined them at the end of the battle. Palena. About 300 privates and 12 officers were captured. In addition, the Cossacks seized O.F.’s personal documents. Sebastiniani, the content of which indicated that the French command knew the plans of the leadership of the Russian army, i.e. Napoleonic spy settled in the headquarters of Barclay de Tolly.

On August 2 (July 21) near the city of Krasny, the troops of Marshals Ney and Murat fought with the 27th Infantry Division of Lieutenant General D.P. Neverovsky, consisting of 7 thousand unfired recruits.

All day long, forming in a square and slowly moving towards Smolensk, this small detachment fought heroically, repelling 45 attacks by Murat’s cavalry and numerous attacks by Ney’s infantry.

The delay of the enemy near Krasnoye allowed Barclay de Tolly to bring the 1st Army to Smolensk. And on August 3 (July 22), Bagration’s 2nd Army approached Smolensk. As a result of all these efforts, Napoleon's plan to defeat the two Russian armies one by one collapsed.

For two days, August 4 and 5 (July 23–24), stubborn battles took place under the walls of Smolensk. On August 6 and 7 (July 25–26), the battle continued for the city itself.

But there was no general battle here either. Inspired by the heroism of Russian soldiers and officers and private successes, many military leaders insisted on going on the offensive. However, Barclay de Tolly, having weighed everything, decided to continue the retreat. On August 7 (July 26) Russian troops left Smolensk.

Napoleon sent his best forces after them - two infantry and two cavalry corps - about 35 thousand people. They were opposed by the rearguard of General Pavel Alekseevich Tuchkov, numbering 3 thousand people, half of which were Don Cossacks under the command of Major General A.A. Karpov and a company (12 guns) of the Don horse artillery.

Already on the morning of August 7 (July 26), Marshal Ney attacked P.A. Tuchkov’s corps at Valutina Gora (Battle of Lubinsk), but was repulsed. However, the enemy pressure increased. Our rearguard retreated a little and gained a foothold on the line of the Stragan River. Chief of Staff of the 1st Army A.P. Ermolov strengthened P.A. Tuchkov's first cavalry corps, which included a Life Guards Cossack regiment and 4 hussar regiments. Now the forces of the Russian corps have grown to 10 thousand people. As enemy attacks intensified, Barclay de Tolly strengthened Tuchkov's corps with new units. The 3rd Infantry Corps of General P.P. approached the village of Dubino. Konovnitsyna. After this, 15 thousand Russians confronted the corps of Ney, Murat and Junot, who joined them. Cossacks and hussars under the command of Count V.V. Orlov-Denisov, using the “venter”, was lured into an ambush near the village of Zabolotye and inflicted great damage on Murat’s cavalry.

In total, the enemy lost about 9 thousand people that day, and the Russians lost more than 5 thousand people. During the night attack, General P.A. was seriously wounded and captured. Tuchkov.

But his troops held out and gave the 1st and 2nd armies the opportunity to break away from the pursuit of the French troops.

Russian units retreated in three columns. They were covered by rearguard detachments: Southern - under the command of General K.K. Siversa, Central - under the command of General M.I. Platov, Northern - under the command of General K.A. Kreutz. But the brunt of the fighting fell on the M.I. unit. Platova. It consisted of 8 incomplete Don Cossack regiments: Atamansky, Balabin S.F., Vlasov M.G., Grekov T.D., Denisov V.T., Zhirov I.I., Ilovaisky N.V., Kharitonova K.I. and one Simferopol equestrian Tatar.

On August 9 (July 28), Platov’s fighters held back the onslaught of the French at the Solovyova crossing of the Dnieper. On August 10 (July 29) they detained the enemy at Pnevaya Sloboda, and in the meantime, 7 infantry battalions, 18 squadrons of hussars and lancers and 22 guns, including Don horse artillery, arrived to reinforce them, under the command of Major General G.V. Rosen, took a convenient position near the village of Mikhailovka. Where they repulsed enemy attacks on August 11 and 12 (July 30 and 31). On August 13 (1), Napoleonic troops were detained for a whole day near the city of Dorogobuzh at the turn of the Osma River. On August 14 (2), the Cossacks and Tatars of Platov fettered the advance of the French vanguard, remaining in their positions, giving the opportunity to the detachment of G.V. Rosen, retreat and gain a foothold near the village of Belomirskoye. On August 15 (3), the battle here lasted from 11 a.m. to 8 p.m. On this day, the Cossacks rushed to attack the enemy 6 times and lost more killed and wounded than in the entire time since the beginning of the war.

On the evening of August 16 (4), M.I. Platov handed over command of the rearguard to General P.P. Konovnitsin and went to Moscow to resolve the accumulated issues: about the formation and dispatch of the Don militia to the theater of operations - 26 regiments, supplies for the regiments already fighting against the French army, and many others. The rearguard continued to carry out its assigned tasks. Thanks to this, the main forces of the Russian army retreated without major losses.

Patriotic War 1812 is war between the French and Russian empires, which took place on the territory. Despite the superiority French army, under the leadership, the Russian troops managed to show incredible valor and ingenuity.

Moreover, the Russians managed to emerge victorious in this difficult confrontation. To this day, the victory over the French is considered one of the most significant in Russia.

We bring to your attention a brief history of the Patriotic War of 1812. If you want a brief summary about this period of our history, we recommend reading.

Causes and nature of the war

The Patriotic War of 1812 occurred as a result of Napoleon's desire for world domination. Before this, he managed to successfully defeat many opponents.

His main and only enemy in Europe remained. The French Emperor wanted to destroy Britain through a continental blockade.

It is worth noting that 5 years before the start of the Patriotic War of 1812, the Tilsit Peace Treaty was signed between Russia and Russia. However, the main point of this agreement was not published then. According to him, he pledged to support Napoleon in the blockade directed against Great Britain.

However, both the French and the Russians were well aware that sooner or later a war would also break out between them, since Napoleon Bonaparte was not going to stop at subjugating Europe alone.

That is why countries began to actively prepare for a future war, building up their military potential and increasing the size of their armies.

Patriotic War of 1812 briefly

In 1812, Napoleon Bonaparte invaded the territory Russian Empire. Thus, for this war it became Patriotic, since not only the army, but also the majority of ordinary citizens took part in it.

Balance of power

Before the start of the Patriotic War of 1812, Napoleon managed to assemble a huge army, which included about 675 thousand soldiers.

All of them were well armed and, most importantly, had extensive combat experience, because by that time France had subjugated almost all of Europe.

The Russian army was almost as good as the French in the number of troops, which numbered about 600 thousand. In addition, about 400 thousand Russian militia took part in the war.

Russian Emperor Alexander 1 (left) and Napoleon (right)

Moreover, unlike the French, the advantage of the Russians was that they were patriotic and fought for the liberation of their land, thanks to which the national spirit rose.

In Napoleon’s army, with patriotism, things were exactly the opposite, because there were many hired soldiers who did not care for or against what to fight.

Moreover, Alexander 1 managed to arm his army well and seriously strengthen the artillery, which, as it soon became clear, surpassed the French.

In addition, the Russian troops were commanded by such experienced military leaders as Bagration, Raevsky, Miloradovich and the famous Kutuzov.

It should also be understood that in terms of the number of people and food supplies, Russia, located on its own soil, was superior to France.

Plans of the parties

At the very beginning of the Patriotic War of 1812, Napoleon planned to launch a lightning attack on Russia, capturing significant territory.

After this, he intended to conclude a new agreement with Alexander 1, according to which the Russian Empire was to submit to France.

Having extensive experience in battles, Bonaparte vigilantly ensured that the divided Russian troops did not unite together. He believed that it would be much easier for him to defeat the enemy when he was divided into parts.

Napoleon and General Lauriston

Even before the start of the war, Alexander 1 publicly stated that neither he nor his army should make any compromises with the French. Moreover, he planned to fight Bonaparte’s army not on his territory, but outside it, somewhere in the western part of Europe.

In case of failure, the Russian emperor was ready to retreat to the north, and from there continue to fight Napoleon. An interesting fact is that at that time Russia did not have a single clearly thought-out plan for waging war.

Stages of the war

The Patriotic War of 1812 took place in 2 stages. At the first stage, the Russians planned to deliberately retreat back in order to lure the French into a trap, as well as to disrupt Napoleon's tactical plan.

The next step was to be a counter-offensive, which would force the enemy out of the Russian Empire.

History of the Patriotic War of 1812

On June 12, 1812, Napoleonic army crossed the Neman, after which it entered Russia. The 1st and 2nd Russian armies came out to meet them, deliberately not engaging in open battle with the enemy.

They fought rearguard battles, the purpose of which was to wear down the enemy and inflict significant losses on him.

Alexander 1 gave the order that his troops avoid disunity and do not allow the enemy to break themselves into separate parts. Ultimately, thanks to well-planned tactics, they managed to achieve this. Thus, Napoleon's first plan remained unrealized.

On August 8, he was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the Russian Army. He also continued his general retreat tactics.

Military Council in Fili, Patriotic War of 1812

And although the Russians retreated back purposefully, they, like the rest of the people, were waiting for the main battle, which sooner or later was bound to take place anyway.

Soon this battle will take place near the village of Borodino, located not far from.

Battles of the Patriotic War of 1812

At the height of the Patriotic War of 1812, Kutuzov chose defensive tactics. Bagration commanded the troops on the left flank, Raevsky’s artillery was located in the center, and Barclay de Tolly’s army was on the right flank.

Napoleon preferred to attack rather than defend, since this tactic repeatedly helped him emerge victorious from military campaigns.

He understood that sooner or later the Russians would stop retreating and they would have to accept battle. At that point in time, the French emperor was confident of his victory and, I must say, there were good reasons for this.

Before 1812, he had already managed to show the whole world the power of the French army, which was able to conquer more than one European country. The talent of Napoleon himself, as an outstanding commander, was recognized by everyone.

Battle of Borodino

The Battle of Borodino, which was sung in the poem “Borodino,” took place on August 26 (September 7), 1812 near the village of Borodino, 125 km west of Moscow.

Napoleon entered from the left and carried out several attacks on the enemy, entering into open battle with the Russian army. At that moment, both sides began to actively use artillery, suffering serious losses.

Ultimately, the Russians retreated in an orderly manner, but this did not give Napoleon anything.

Then the French began to attack the center of the Russian troops. In this regard, Kutuzov (see) ordered the Cossacks to go around the enemy from the rear and strike at him.

Although the plan did not bring any benefit to the Russians, it forced Napoleon to stop the attack for several hours. Thanks to this, Kutuzov managed to pull additional forces to the center.

Ultimately, Napoleon still managed to take the Russian fortifications, however, as before, this did not bring him any significant benefit. Due to constant attacks, he lost many soldiers, so the fighting soon began to subside.

Both sides lost large numbers of men and guns. However, the Battle of Borodino raised the morale of the Russians, who realized that they could fight Napoleon's great army quite successfully. The French, on the contrary, were demoralized, dejected by the failure and were completely at a loss.

From Moscow to Maloyaroslavets

The Patriotic War of 1812 continued. After the Battle of Borodino, the army of Alexander 1 continued its retreat, getting closer and closer to Moscow.

Crossing of the Italian Corps of Eugene Beauharnais across the Neman, June 30, 1812

The French followed, but no longer sought to engage in open battle. On September 1, at the military council of Russian generals, Mikhail Kutuzov made a sensational decision, with which many did not agree.

He insisted that Moscow be abandoned and all property in it destroyed. As a result, this is exactly what happened.

Entry of the French into Moscow, September 14, 1812

The French army, exhausted physically and mentally, needed replenishment of food supplies and rest. However, bitter disappointment awaited them.

Once in Moscow, Napoleon did not see a single inhabitant or even an animal. Leaving Moscow, the Russians set fire to all the buildings so that the enemy could not take advantage of anything. This was an unprecedented case in history.

When the French realized the deplorability of their stupid situation, they were completely demoralized and defeated. Many soldiers stopped obeying their commanders and turned into gangs of robbers running around the outskirts of the city.

Russian troops, on the contrary, were able to break away from Napoleon and enter the Kaluga and Tula provinces. They had food supplies and ammunition hidden there. In addition, the soldiers could take a break from a difficult campaign and join the ranks of the army.

The best solution to this absurd situation for Napoleon was the conclusion of peace with Russia, but all his proposals for a truce were rejected by Alexander 1 and Kutuzov.

A month later, the French began to leave Moscow in disgrace. Bonaparte was furious at this outcome of events and did everything possible to engage the Russians in battle.

Having reached Kaluga on October 12, near the city of Maloyaroslavets, a major battle took place, in which both sides lost many people and military equipment. However, the final victory did not go to anyone.

Victory in the Patriotic War of 1812

The further retreat of Napoleon's army looked more like a chaotic flight than an organized exit from Russia. After the French began to loot, local residents began to unite into partisan detachments and engage in battles with the enemy.

At this time, Kutuzov carefully pursued Bonaparte’s army, avoiding open clashes with it. He wisely took care of his warriors, fully aware that the enemy’s forces were melting before his eyes.

The French suffered serious losses in the battle of the city of Krasny. Tens of thousands of invaders died in this battle. The Patriotic War of 1812 was coming to an end.

When Napoleon tried to save the remnants of the army and transport them across the Berezina River, he once again suffered a heavy defeat from the Russians. It should be understood that the French were not prepared for the unusually severe frosts that struck at the very beginning of winter.

Obviously, before the attack on Russia, Napoleon did not plan to stay in it for so long, as a result of which he did not take care of warm uniforms for his troops.

Napoleon's retreat from Moscow

As a result of an inglorious retreat, Napoleon abandoned the soldiers to their fate and secretly fled to France.

On December 25, 1812, Alexander 1 issued a manifesto, which spoke of the end of the Patriotic War.

Reasons for Napoleon's defeat

Among the reasons for Napoleon's defeat in his Russian campaign, the most often cited are:

• popular participation in the war and mass heroism of Russian soldiers and officers;
• the length of Russia's territory and harsh climatic conditions;
• military leadership talent of the commander-in-chief of the Russian army Kutuzov and other generals.

The main reason for Napoleon's defeat was the nationwide rise of Russians to defend the Fatherland. In the unity of the Russian army with the people we must look for the source of its power in 1812.

Results of the Patriotic War of 1812

The Patriotic War of 1812 is one of the significant events in the history of Russia. Russian troops managed to stop the invincible army of Napoleon Bonaparte and show unprecedented heroism.

The war caused serious damage to the economy of the Russian Empire, which was estimated at hundreds of millions of rubles. More than 200 thousand people died on the battlefields.

Battle of Smolensk

Many settlements were completely or partially destroyed, and their restoration required not only large amounts, but also human resources.

However, despite this, victory in the Patriotic War of 1812 strengthened the morale of the entire Russian people. After it, many European countries began to respect the army of the Russian Empire.

The main result of the Patriotic War of 1812 was the almost complete destruction of Napoleon's Grand Army.

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1. Insoluble contradictions between France and Russia.

2. Aggressive foreign policy of the French Empire.

3. Napoleon's open desire for world domination.

II. Plans of the parties

France. Napoleon's goal: to impose border battles. Defeat the Russian armies one by one during several pitched battles.

Russia. Goal: avoid border battles. Retreat in order to unite the Russian armies.

1st Russian Army of Barclay de Tolly - 120 thousand people in the north of Lithuania.

2nd Army of Bagration - 49 thousand people In the south of Lithuania.

3rd Army of Tormasov - 58 thousand people in Volyn.

Wittgenstein Corps (covering the capital) - 38 thousand people near Riga.

III. Main events of the Patriotic War of 1812

August 4-6, 1812 - defeat of Russian troops in the battle for Smolensk; Napoleon's peace proposal to Alexander.

IV. Foreign campaign of the Russian army

4. Peace of Paris (May 1814) - the return of France to the borders of 1792, the restoration of the Bourbon dynasty (Restoration).

Lecture 38

Nicholas' foreign policyI. Crimean War (1853-1856)

The Crimean War is a special event in the history of Russian foreign policy, which had a significant impact on international relations and the internal situation of the empire. On the one hand, the war showed the political and economic weakness of Russia, the inability of the army to take active military action due to backwardness and unpreparedness. On the other hand, it demonstrated the heroism of Russian soldiers, their ability to stand up for the interests of Russia.

Participating in the war were Russia, the Ottoman Empire, England and France. Each of these countries had its own interests and expected victory. The war was unjust and aggressive both on the part of Russia and on the part of the Anglo-French-Turkish coalition formed against it.

The Crimean War should be divided into two stages:

Russian-Turkish campaign 1853-1854 – Danube Front

Anglo-French intervention in Crimea and military operations on the Caucasian front

After Turkey declared war, the Russian fleet, led by admirals Kornilov and Nakhimov, defeated the Turkish fleet and coastal batteries in Sinop Bay. The Battle of Sinop accelerated the entry of England and France into the war. In April 1854, a whole bloc of capitalist European states came out against Russia. England and France considered it necessary to capture Sevastopol, the largest naval base on the Black Sea.

The defense of Sevastopol was prepared under the leadership of admirals Kornilov and Nakhimov and engineer Totleben. By order of Nakhimov, the Russian fleet was scuttled in the Sevastopol Bay, blocking the way for the enemy’s naval landing.

In October 1854, the siege and heroic defense of the city began, which lasted 11 months. After the death of Kornilov, overall command was assumed by Admiral Nakhimov, who was mortally wounded in June 1855. The heroic defense of Sevastopol ended in the defeat of the Russian forces.

In the Caucasus, Russian troops suffered defeats.

On March 18, 1856, the Paris Peace Treaty was signed, ending the Crimean War. Russia's international prestige was undermined. She was prohibited from having a navy, military arsenals and fortresses on the coast on the Black Sea. The straits were closed to warships of all powers (except Turkey). Russia was deprived of the mouth of the Danube, the southern part of Bessarabia, and the right of patronage of Serbia and the Danube principalities.

Lecture 39

Reforms of the 60s – 70s of the 19th century in Russia, their consequences

By the middle of the 19th century. Russia's lag behind advanced capitalist states in the economic and socio-political spheres became clear. International events (the Crimean War) showed a significant weakening of Russia in the foreign policy area. Therefore, the main goal of the government’s domestic policy in the second half of the 19th century. was to bring the economic and socio-political system of Russia in line with the needs of the time.

Zemstvo reform

After the abolition of serfdom, it became necessary to change local government in 1864. zemstvo reform. Zemstvo institutions (zemstvos) were created in provinces and districts. These were elected bodies from representatives of all classes. The scope of their activities was limited to solving economic issues local significance: arrangement and maintenance of communications, zemstvo schools and hospitals, care for trade and industry. Zemstvos were under the control of central and local authorities, who had the right to suspend any resolution of the zemstvo assembly. Despite this, zemstvos played a huge role in the development of education and health care and became centers for the formation of the liberal noble and bourgeois opposition.

Urban reform. (1870)

“City regulations” created all-class bodies in cities - city dumas and city councils headed by the city mayor. They dealt with the improvement of the city, took care of trade, and provided educational and medical needs. The leading role belonged to the big bourgeoisie. It was under strict control of the government administration. The candidacy of the mayor was approved by the governor.

Judicial reform:

1864 - New judicial statutes promulgated.

Provisions:

the class system of courts was abolished

equality of all before the law was declared

publicity of proceedings was introduced

adversarial proceedings

presumption of innocence

irremovability of judges

unified judicial system

Military reform: 1874

The period of active service was established in the ground forces - 6 years, in the navy - 7 years. Recruitment was abolished. Valid dates military service determined by educational qualifications. Persons with higher education served for six months. The army was reduced and military settlements were liquidated. In the 60s, the rearmament of the army began: replacing smooth-bore weapons with rifled ones, introducing steel artillery pieces, improving the horse park, and developing a military steam fleet. Military gymnasiums, cadet schools and academies were created to train officers. All this made it possible to reduce the size of the army in peacetime and at the same time increase its combat effectiveness.

Education reform: 1864

In fact, accessible all-class education was introduced. Along with state schools, zemstvo, parochial, Sunday and private schools arose. Gymnasiums were divided into classical and real. The curriculum in gymnasiums was determined by universities, which created the possibility of a system of continuity. During this period, secondary women's education began to develop, and women's gymnasiums began to be created. Women are beginning to be admitted as free students to higher education institutions.

Significance of reforms:

contributed to a more rapid development of capitalist relations in Russia.

contributed to the beginning of the formation of bourgeois freedoms in Russian society (freedom of speech, individuals, organizations, etc.). The first steps were taken to expand the role of the public in the life of the country and transform Russia into a bourgeois monarchy.

contributed to the formation of civic consciousness.

contributed to the rapid development of culture and education in Russia.

Lecture 40

Populism in Russia

In the 70s, several similar movements of utopian socialism emerged, called “populism.” The populists believed that thanks to the peasant community (“a cell of socialism”) and the qualities of the peasant community worker (“a revolutionary by instinct,” “a born communist”), Russia would be able to directly transition to a socialist system. The views of the theoreticians of populism (Bakunin, Lavrov, Tkachev) differed on issues of tactics, but they all saw the main obstacle to socialism in state power and believed that a secret organization, revolutionary leaders should rouse the people to revolt and lead them to victory.

M.A. Bakunin and “Bakunism”

The “rebellious” (anarchist) trend was headed by Bakunin (1814-1876), an active participant in the revolutionary events of 1848-1849. He was repeatedly tried and sentenced to death, but in 1861 he managed to escape from Siberia abroad.

Bakunin was familiar with Marx and was at odds with him in the First International, and also tried to lead the latter along the anarchist path. He proclaimed the need for revolution and was against the existing system.

He was opposed to the idea of ​​the dictatorship of the proletariat. His ideal was a “Free federation of workers’ associations – agricultural and factory-craft.” He relied in everything on the peasantry, the semi-proletarian strata and the lumpen proletariat.

In Russian conditions, “Bakunism” comes down to “peasant socialism.” Bakunin inspired that the Russian people were constantly ready for an uprising. He considered the riot useful, however, he said that everyone should speak out at once.

A major role in Bakunin’s popularity was played by the books he wrote, “Statehood and Anarchy,” and especially “Additions A.”

P.L. Lavrov and the “Laurists”

Another theoretical direction in populism (“propaganda”) was headed by Lavrov, the head of a movement that competed with the Bakuninists. Scientist, writer, professor at the Artillery Academy of St. Petersburg, in the 50-60s. After an attempt on the life of the Tsar, he was arrested and exiled to the Vologda province, from where he fled abroad in 1870. In exile, he wrote “Historical Letters,” in which the question was raised about the “price of progress.”

The “Lavrists,” unlike the Bakuninists, argued that they were not ready for an uprising and that it needed to be prepared. In 1874, Lavrov wrote that the Russian revolution should “at once overthrow the economic foundations of the present social system.”

P.N.Tkachev

The “conspiratorial” trend in populism was headed by P.N. Tkachev. Tkachev believed that the people cannot implement the ideas of social revolution; only a conspiracy of intellectuals - the “revolutionary minority” - is capable of this. In his opinion, in Russia the activity of the conspirators was greatly facilitated by the fact that the autocracy is a fiction, “hanging in the air”, without support and support. Several blows to the “abandoned government” should lead to its fall, after which the captured state apparatus will be used by the revolutionaries. Tkachev's supporters thought that the communist instincts inherent in the Russian peasantry would then make it possible to implement socialist ideas in the country and turn Russia into an exemplary socialist country.

At the turn of the 60s and 70s, numerous populist circles arose in Russia. Among them, the society of “Tchaikovites” (Tchaikovsky, Zhelyabov, Perovskaya, etc.) stood out. Members of the society conducted propaganda among peasants and workers, and then actually led the “going to the people.” The government unleashed a wave of repression on the populists.

At the end of 1876, a new organization of populists arose - the second “Land and Freedom”. Soon two trends arose in the organization: some were inclined to continue propaganda work, others considered terrorism the only means of bringing the revolution closer. In August 1879 the final split occurred. Supporters of propaganda united in the “Black Redistribution”, supporters of terror - in the “People's Will”.

Lecture 41

Social and political movement in Russia in the second halfXIXV.:

revolutionaries and liberals

Liberal movement second half of the 19th century was the widest in Russia and had many different shades. Already at the turn of the 30s and 40s, two liberal movements appeared in Russia, between which there was a sharp ideological dispute about the fate of Russia - Westerners and Slavophiles. Westerners believed that Russia and Western Europe were developing along the same path, and that parliamentarism would be established in Russia. Slavophiles believed that Russia was developing along its own special path, which would allow it to avoid capitalism. The key to this is the community and the patriarchy of the peasantry. But both of them advocated the abolition of serfdom.

Liberals advocated the peaceful establishment of constitutional forms of government, political and civil liberties and the education of the people. Being supporters of legal forms of struggle, liberals acted through the press and zemstvo.

In the conditions of the political crisis at the turn of the 50-60s, they intensified their activities revolutionary democrats. The ideological center of this trend was the magazine Sovremennik, which was headed by Chernyshevsky and Dobrolyubov. In the course of an acute socio-political struggle, Chernyshevsky developed a program of social reforms: the elimination of landlordism and the transfer of land to peasants, the elimination of autocracy and the establishment of a democratic republic, the destruction of class privileges and the democratization of the entire social structure of Russia.

The magazine Kolokol2, created abroad by Herzen, was of great importance for influencing public opinion in Russia. At the end of 1861, the Revolutionary circles of Russia created the organization “Land and Freedom”. Its ideological leader was Chernyshevsky.

“Land and Freedom” was the first major revolutionary-democratic secret organization in Russia. In their publications, they explained to peasants, soldiers and students the tasks of the upcoming revolution, substantiated the need for the elimination of autocracy and a fair solution to the agrarian question. Democratic transformation of Russia.

After 1861, the peasant movement began to decline. Many revolutionaries (including Chernyshevsky) were arrested, others emigrated. By the spring of 1864, “Land and Freedom” ceased to exist. However, the revolutionary democratic movement did not completely die out.

Lecture 42

Expansion of the state territory of Russia in the second halfXIXV

Russia's defeat in the Crimean War dramatically changed the balance of power on the world stage: Russia found itself isolated and actually lost its role as the strongest power. She was forced to realize her foreign policy goals in the context of an intensified struggle for the territorial division of the world and for hegemony in Europe between France and the strengthening Prussia, which sought to unite the German states under its auspices into a single empire.

Russian diplomacy has achieved significant successes in the Far East: as a result of peace negotiations with China, the Amur and Primorye regions were assigned to Russia. A great contribution to the organization of the development of the Far East was made by the Governor-General of Eastern Siberia N. N. Muravyov, who received the title of Count and the honorary prefix Amur for his services. Vladivostok was founded in 1860, and in 1871 it became the base of the Siberian military flotilla. At the same time, the weakness of Russian positions on Pacific Ocean, the remoteness of the region and financial difficulties forced the Russian government to sell Alaska and its other possessions in North America to the United States in 1867. In 1868 the Russian-American Company was liquidated. According to the 1875 treaty with Japan, the entire island of Sakhalin was recognized as Russian possession, and the Kuril Islands were ceded to Japan.

The main arena of military and diplomatic conflicts involving Russia in the second half of the 19th century. turned out to be the Balkans.

The main task foreign policy The Russian government was the abolition of the restrictive articles of the Paris Peace Treaty of 1856. A. M. Gorchakov, appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs in 1856, began to resolve this through a complex diplomatic game on the contradictions between the leading European powers. He began with a rapprochement with France, which was interested in supporting Russia in connection with the worsening relations with Austria. As a result, Russia emerged from diplomatic and political isolation, and its prestige in the Balkans increased again.

Since the mid-1860s. The attention of the Russian government was attracted by the problems of Central Asia: constant attacks by Bukhara, Khiva and Kokand troops on Russian trade caravans and border lands, as well as the threat of British expansion in this region, prompted Russia to intensify its policy. As a result of campaigns against the Kokand, Bukhara and Khiva khanates, Bukhara and Khiva recognized their vassal dependence on Russia. The Kokand Khanate was liquidated, and its territory became part of Russia. The Turkestan General Government was established on the lands occupied by Russian troops.

In the 1880s Russian policy in Central Asia intensified again: as a result of the Akhalket expeditions, Turkmen lands became part of Russia, Russian possessions came close to the borders of Afghanistan.

By the end of the 19th century. The territory of Russia was 22.4 million square meters. km. According to the 1897 census, the population was 128.2 million people. The territory of the empire was divided into 81 provinces and 20 regions; There were 931 cities in the country.

Lecture 43

Alexander III. Domestic policy Russia in the 80-90s. XIX century

After the death of Alexander II from a terrorist bomb, his son, the emperor, ascended the throne at the age of 36 Alexander III. Honest, strong-willed and hardworking, Alexander Alexandrovich was at the same time a rather limited person. Unfamiliar with the first successes of his father’s reforms, he found himself already in an era of discord between government and society, government hesitation, and social upheaval. The ideals of the heir were unlimited autocracy, strict guardianship of society, strengthening the class framework, strengthening Russian principles on the outskirts of the empire, and original development (without European borrowings).

The trial of the regicides demonstrated the turn of public opinion from liberal illusions to the demands of a “strong hand.” On April 3, 1881, five Narodnaya Volya members (Zhelyabov, Perovskaya, Kibalchich, etc.) were publicly hanged.

Under Alexander III, many of the reforms carried out by his father's government not only did not receive further development, but were seriously curtailed, and some were outright cancelled.

The main activities of the new government were “eradicating sedition” and calming the public.

The authorities were given the right to arrest, put on military trial and administrative expulsion, declare closed trials, close educational institutions, ban the publication of newspapers, etc.

The size of the gendarme corps increased significantly. Secret investigative departments were created everywhere to protect public safety and order, where secret agents and provocateurs were used.

Since 1882, the government of Alexander III took a course towards strengthening and strengthening the power of the autocratic monarchy and began to formalize the policy of so-called counter-reforms. The concept of the new political course was finally formed by the mid-80s and consisted of proclaiming the inviolability of autocracy, the inadmissibility of any transformations of the existing government, the centralization of power and the limitation of the rights of local self-government, and the complete inviolability of the rights of the nobility.

Lecture 44

Russia at the turnXIX- XXcenturies. Features of socio-economic development.

Bourgeois reforms of the 60-70s of the 19th century. contributed to the development of Russian capitalism. Russia, later than many European countries, embarked on the path of capitalist development. The pace of development of capitalism and the level of concentration of industrial production in Russia were higher. In the second half of the 19th century, the social structure of the Russian population changed. According to the All-Russian census of 1897, the country's population was 125.6 million people. There were about 70% peasants, burghers  11%, population of the national outskirts  2.3%, nobles  1.5%, merchants  0.5%, clergy  0.5%.

The distribution of the population by class shows an increase in the number of the big bourgeoisie, landowners and higher officials - up to 2.4%. The number of social strata characteristic of the capitalist era - proletarians, middle and petty bourgeoisie - has increased.

Industrial development. The emergence of new industrial areas.

Capitalism in industry passed through three stages:

1. Small-scale production (mainly peasant crafts),

2. Capitalist manufacture,

3. Capitalist factory, when machine industry arises.

In the early 80s, Russia completed the industrial revolution. Machine labor replaced manual labor. Steam engines and mechanical machines were widely used.

New industrial centers appeared. During the second half of the 19th century, coal production increased almost 30 times, and oil production - 700 times. Factory settlements arose.

Railway construction developed. In the mid-50s of the XIX century. The Nikolaevskaya railway was built, which connected Moscow with St. Petersburg. At the end of the 70s, railway construction began on the outskirts of Russia: in Transcaucasia, Central Asia, and Siberia. The initiator of the “railway boom” was the Minister of Railways S.Yu. Witte. In the 90s, construction of the Trans-Siberian railway was underway.

The development of capitalism in agriculture.

In agriculture, the stratification of the peasantry increased. There was a process of “de-peasantization”, i.e. separation of the rural bourgeoisie and the rural proletariat. Technology was used more widely and specialization deepened. The more rapid development of capitalism was hampered by the remnants of serfdom: the preservation of landownership, the lack of land for peasants, the preservation of temporary obligations until 1881, redemption payments until 1906.

Lecture 45

Outstanding state Russian figures of the endXIX- startedXXV. (S.Yu. Witte, P.A. Stolypin)

Witte Sergey Yulievich

Born into the family of a major official. Graduated from the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics of Novorossiysk University (Odessa). He worked in private railway companies for about 20 years. S.Yu. Witte held the high positions of Minister of Railways and Minister of Finance. He initiated the introduction of a wine monopoly, monetary reform, and the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway.

Since August 1903 - Chairman of the Committee of Ministers. In 1905, he headed the Russian delegation that signed the Portsmouth Peace Treaty between Russia and Japan, for which he received the title of count.

Emperor Nicholas II signed the Manifesto compiled with the participation of Witte on October 19, 1905, which laid the foundations for the new constitutional structure of the empire. Witte was appointed Chairman of the Council of Ministers. However, Witte turned out to be too “left” for the bulk of the nobility and the top of the ruling bureaucracy and too “right” for the bourgeois-liberal circles of the Octobrist-Cadet persuasion.

Witte resigned, which was accepted on April 16, 1906. Last years spent his life in St. Petersburg and abroad. While remaining a member of the State Council, Witte took part in the work of the Finance Committee, of which he was chairman until his death. In 1907-1912. Witte wrote “Memoirs,” which are of significant interest for characterizing the policies of the tsarist government.

Stolypin Pyotr Arkadevich

Statesman. Born into an old noble family. Graduated from the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics of St. Petersburg University. A large landowner, a convinced monarchist. In 1903 he became governor of Saratov. During the peasant unrest in the summer of 1905, he showed energy, toughness, and personal courage.

In April 1906 he was appointed Minister of the Interior and in July - simultaneously Chairman of the Council of Ministers. In Russia, a decree was adopted on military courts, in which legal proceedings were completed within 48 hours, and the sentence was executed within 24 hours. According to researchers, from August 1906 to April 1907, 1,102 death sentences were imposed, and the gallows began to be called “Stolypin’s tie.” There were 11 attempts on Stolypin’s life.

After the defeat of the first Russian revolution, Stolypin's government began to carry out reforms, the main of which was agrarian. Stolypin's idea was to solve the agrarian problem without affecting landownership, enriching some peasants at the expense of others. Stolypin's independent position restored the nobility against him, who argued Nicholas II that the prime minister transfers power to the bourgeoisie; open confrontation with G.E. Rasputin aroused the enmity of Empress Alexandra Feodorovna. His influence was declining. Stolypin was killed by a terrorist D.G. Bogrov. Obstacles imposed on Stolypin “from above” accelerated the solution of accumulated problems by the revolutionary upheaval of 1917.

Lecture 46

Revolution of 1905-1907 in Russia: causes, main political forces, worker and peasant movement, anti-government protests in the army

Causes:

By the beginning of the 20th century, the following contradictions became extremely aggravated in Russia, which were the causes of the first Russian revolution.

1) The contradiction between landowners and peasants. The land question was the main socio-economic issue of the First Russian Revolution.

2) The contradiction between workers and capitalists due to the high degree of exploitation of workers in Russia.

3) The contradiction between the autocracy and all segments of the population due to the complete political lack of rights of the vast majority of the country

4) The contradiction between the autocracy and all non-Russian nations and nationalities due to the Russification policy pursued by the autocracy. Non-Russian nations and nationalities demanded cultural and national autonomy from the autocracy.

One of the main issues of any revolution is the question of power. In relation to him, various socio-political forces in Russia united into three camps. First camp were supporters of autocracy. They either did not recognize the changes at all, or agreed to the existence of a legislative advisory body under the autocrat. These are, first of all, reactionary landowners, the highest ranks of state bodies, the army, the police, part of the bourgeoisie directly connected with tsarism, and many zemstvo leaders. Second camp consisted of representatives of the liberal bourgeoisie and liberal intelligentsia, the advanced nobility, office workers, the city petty bourgeoisie, and part of the peasants. They advocated the preservation of the monarchy, but a constitutional, parliamentary one.

IN third camp - revolutionary-democratic - included the proletariat, part of the peasantry, the poorest layers of the petty bourgeoisie, etc. Their interests were expressed by Social Democrats, Socialist Revolutionaries, anarchists and other political forces.

First Russian Revolution , which had a bourgeois-democratic character, lasted for 2.5 years - from January 9, 1905 to June 3, 1907.

Conventionally, the revolution can be divided into 3 stages:

Istage . January 9 – September 1905- the beginning of the revolution and its development along an ascending line.

IIstage . October–December 1905- the highest rise of the revolution, the culmination of which was an armed uprising in Moscow.

IIIstage. January 1906 – June 3, 1907- the period of the descending line of the revolution.

2012 marks the 200th anniversary of the military-historical patriotic event - the Patriotic War of 1812, which is of great importance for the political, social, cultural and military development of Russia.

Beginning of the war

June 12, 1812 (old style) Napoleon's French army, having crossed the Neman near the city of Kovno (now Kaunas in Lithuania), invaded the Russian Empire. This day is listed in history as the beginning of the war between Russia and France.

In this war, two forces collided. On the one hand, Napoleon’s army of half a million (about 640 thousand people), which consisted only half of the French and also included representatives of almost all of Europe. An army, intoxicated by numerous victories, led by famous marshals and generals led by Napoleon. Strengths The French army was large in number, good material and technical support, combat experience, and belief in the invincibility of the army.

She was opposed by the Russian army, which at the beginning of the war represented one-third of the French army. Before the start of the Patriotic War of 1812, it had just ended Russian-Turkish war 1806-1812. The Russian army was divided into three groups far apart from each other (under the command of generals M.B. Barclay de Tolly, P.I. Bagration and A.P. Tormasov). Alexander I was at the headquarters of Barclay's army.

The blow of Napoleon's army was taken by the troops stationed on the western border: the 1st Army of Barclay de Tolly and the 2nd Army of Bagration (153 thousand soldiers in total).

Knowing his numerical superiority, Napoleon pinned his hopes on a lightning war. One of his main mistakes was to underestimate the patriotic impulse of the army and people of Russia.

The start of the war was successful for Napoleon. At 6 o'clock in the morning on June 12 (24), 1812, the vanguard of the French troops entered Russian city Kovno. The crossing of 220 thousand soldiers of the Great Army near Kovno took 4 days. 5 days later, another group (79 thousand soldiers) under the command of the Viceroy of Italy Eugene Beauharnais crossed the Neman to the south of Kovno. At the same time, even further south, near Grodno, the Neman was crossed by 4 corps (78-79 thousand soldiers) under the overall command of the King of Westphalia, Jerome Bonaparte. In the northern direction near Tilsit, the Neman crossed the 10th Corps of Marshal MacDonald (32 thousand soldiers), which was aimed at St. Petersburg. In the southern direction, from Warsaw across the Bug, a separate Austrian corps of General Schwarzenberg (30-33 thousand soldiers) began to invade.

The rapid advance of the powerful French army forced the Russian command to retreat deeper into the country. The commander of the Russian troops, Barclay de Tolly, avoided a general battle, preserving the army and striving to unite with Bagration’s army. The numerical superiority of the enemy raised the question of urgent replenishment of the army. But in Russia there was no universal conscription. The army was recruited through conscription. And Alexander I decided to take an unusual step. On July 6, he issued a manifesto calling for the creation of a people's militia. This is how the first partisan detachments began to appear. This war united all segments of the population. As now, so then, the Russian people are united only by misfortune, grief, and tragedy. It didn’t matter who you were in society, what your income was. The Russian people fought unitedly to defend the freedom of their homeland. All people became a single force, which is why the name “Patriotic War” was determined. The war became an example of the fact that the Russian people will never allow freedom and spirit to be enslaved; he will defend his honor and name to the end.

The armies of Barclay and Bagration met near Smolensk at the end of July, thus achieving their first strategic success.

Battle for Smolensk

By August 16 (new style), Napoleon approached Smolensk with 180 thousand soldiers. After the unification of the Russian armies, the generals began to persistently demand from the commander-in-chief Barclay de Tolly a general battle. At 6 am August 16 Napoleon began the assault on the city.

In the battles near Smolensk, the Russian army showed the greatest resilience. The battle for Smolensk marked the development of a nationwide war between the Russian people and the enemy. Napoleon's hope for a lightning war was dashed.

Battle for Smolensk. Adam, around 1820

The stubborn battle for Smolensk lasted 2 days, until the morning of August 18, when Barclay de Tolly withdrew his troops from the burning city to avoid a big battle without a chance of victory. Barclay had 76 thousand, another 34 thousand (Bagration’s army).After the capture of Smolensk, Napoleon moved towards Moscow.

Meanwhile, the protracted retreat caused public discontent and protest among most of the army (especially after the surrender of Smolensk), so on August 20 (according to modern style) Emperor Alexander I signed a decree appointing M.I. as commander-in-chief of the Russian troops. Kutuzova. At that time, Kutuzov was 67 years old. A commander of the Suvorov school, with half a century of military experience, he enjoyed universal respect both in the army and among the people. However, he also had to retreat in order to gain time to gather all his forces.

Kutuzov could not avoid a general battle for political and moral reasons. By September 3 (new style), the Russian army retreated to the village of Borodino. Further retreat meant the surrender of Moscow. By that time, Napoleon's army had already suffered significant losses, and the difference in numbers between the two armies had narrowed. In this situation, Kutuzov decided to give a general battle.

West of Mozhaisk, 125 km from Moscow near the village of Borodina August 26 (September 7, new style) 1812 A battle took place that will forever go down in the history of our people. - the largest battle of the Patriotic War of 1812 between the Russian and French armies.

The Russian army numbered 132 thousand people (including 21 thousand poorly armed militias). The French army, hot on her heels, numbered 135 thousand. Kutuzov's headquarters, believing that there were about 190 thousand people in the enemy army, chose a defensive plan. In fact, the battle was an assault by French troops on a line of Russian fortifications (flashes, redoubts and lunettes).

Napoleon hoped to defeat the Russian army. But the resilience of the Russian troops, where every soldier, officer, and general was a hero, overturned all the calculations of the French commander. The battle lasted all day. The losses were huge on both sides. The Battle of Borodino is one of the bloodiest battles of the 19th century. According to the most conservative estimates of total losses, 2,500 people died on the field every hour. Some divisions lost up to 80% of their strength. There were almost no prisoners on either side. French losses amounted to 58 thousand people, Russians - 45 thousand.

Emperor Napoleon later recalled: “Of all my battles, the most terrible was the one I fought near Moscow. The French showed themselves worthy of winning, and the Russians showed themselves worthy of being called invincible.”

Cavalry battle

On September 8 (21), Kutuzov ordered a retreat to Mozhaisk with the firm intention of preserving the army. The Russian army retreated, but retained its combat effectiveness. Napoleon failed to achieve the main thing - the defeat of the Russian army.

September 13 (26) in the village of Fili Kutuzov had a meeting about the future plan of action. After the military council in Fili, the Russian army, by decision of Kutuzov, was withdrawn from Moscow. “With the loss of Moscow, Russia is not yet lost, but with the loss of the army, Russia is lost”. These words of the great commander, which went down in history, were confirmed by subsequent events.

A.K. Savrasov. The hut in which the famous council in Fili took place

Military Council in Fili (A. D. Kivshenko, 1880)

Capture of Moscow

In the evening September 14 (September 27, new style) Napoleon entered empty Moscow without a fight. In the war against Russia, all of Napoleon's plans consistently collapsed. Expecting to receive the keys to Moscow, he stood in vain for several hours on Poklonnaya Hill, and when he entered the city, he was greeted by deserted streets.

Fire in Moscow on September 15-18, 1812 after the capture of the city by Napoleon. Painting by A.F. Smirnova, 1813

Already on the night of September 14 (27) to September 15 (28), the city was engulfed in fire, which by the night of September 15 (28) to September 16 (29) intensified so much that Napoleon was forced to leave the Kremlin.

About 400 lower-class townspeople were shot on suspicion of arson. The fire raged until September 18 and destroyed most of Moscow. Of the 30 thousand houses that were in Moscow before the invasion, “hardly 5 thousand” remained after Napoleon left the city.

While Napoleon's army was inactive in Moscow, losing its combat effectiveness, Kutuzov retreated from Moscow, first to the southeast along the Ryazan road, but then, turning west, he flanked the French army, occupied the village of Tarutino, blocking the Kaluga road. gu. The foundation was laid in the Tarutino camp final defeat"great army".

When Moscow burned, bitterness against the occupiers reached its highest intensity. The main forms of war of the Russian people against Napoleon's invasion were passive resistance (refusal of trade with the enemy, leaving grain unharvested in the fields, destruction of food and fodder, going into the forests), guerrilla warfare and mass participation in militias. The course of the war was most influenced by the refusal of the Russian peasantry to supply the enemy with provisions and fodder. The French army was on the verge of starvation.

From June to August 1812, Napoleon's army, pursuing the retreating Russian armies, covered about 1,200 kilometers from the Neman to Moscow. As a result, its communication lines were greatly stretched. Taking this fact into account, the command of the Russian army decided to create flying partisan detachments to operate in the rear and on the enemy’s communication lines, with the goal of impeding his supply and destroying his small detachments. The most famous, but far from the only commander of flying squads, was Denis Davydov. Army partisan detachments received full support from the spontaneously emerging peasant partisan movement. As the French army advanced deeper into Russia, as violence on the part of Napoleonic army grew, after fires in Smolensk and Moscow, after discipline in Napoleon’s army decreased and a significant part of it turned into a gang of marauders and robbers, the population of Russia began to move from passive to active resistance to the enemy. During its stay in Moscow alone, the French army lost more than 25 thousand people from partisan actions.

The partisans formed, as it were, the first ring of encirclement around Moscow, occupied by the French. The second ring consisted of militias. Partisans and militias surrounded Moscow in a tight ring, threatening to turn Napoleon's strategic encirclement into a tactical one.

Tarutino fight

After the surrender of Moscow, Kutuzov obviously avoided a major battle, the army accumulated strength. During this time, 205 thousand militia were recruited in the Russian provinces (Yaroslavl, Vladimir, Tula, Kaluga, Tver and others), and 75 thousand in Ukraine. By October 2, Kutuzov withdrew the army south to the village of Tarutino, closer to Kaluga.

In Moscow, Napoleon found himself in a trap; it was not possible to spend the winter in a city devastated by fire: foraging outside the city was not going well, the extended communications of the French were very vulnerable, and the army was beginning to disintegrate. Napoleon began to prepare to retreat to winter quarters somewhere between the Dnieper and Dvina.

When the “great army” retreated from Moscow, its fate was decided.

Battle of Tarutino, October 6th (P. Hess)

October 18(new style) Russian troops attacked and defeated near Tarutino French corps of Murat. Having lost up to 4 thousand soldiers, the French retreated. The Tarutino battle became a landmark event, marking the transition of the initiative in the war to the Russian army.

Napoleon's retreat

October 19(in modern style) the French army (110 thousand) with a huge convoy began to leave Moscow along the Old Kaluga Road. But Napoleon’s road to Kaluga was blocked by Kutuzov’s army, located near the village of Tarutino on the Old Kaluga Road. Due to the lack of horses, the French artillery fleet was reduced, and large cavalry formations practically disappeared. Not wanting to break through a fortified position with a weakened army, Napoleon turned around the village of Troitsky (modern Troitsk) onto the New Kaluga Road (modern Kiev Highway) to bypass Tarutino. However, Kutuzov transferred the army to Maloyaroslavets, cutting off the French retreat along the New Kaluga Road.

By October 22, Kutuzov's army consisted of 97 thousand regular troops, 20 thousand Cossacks, 622 guns and more than 10 thousand militia warriors. Napoleon had up to 70 thousand combat-ready soldiers at hand, the cavalry had practically disappeared, and the artillery was much weaker than the Russian one.

October 12 (24) took place battle of Maloyaroslavets. The city changed hands eight times. In the end, the French managed to capture Maloyaroslavets, but Kutuzov took a fortified position outside the city, which Napoleon did not dare to storm.On October 26, Napoleon ordered a retreat north to Borovsk-Vereya-Mozhaisk.

A.Averyanov. Battle of Maloyaroslavets October 12 (24), 1812

In the battles for Maloyaroslavets, the Russian army solved a major strategic problem - it thwarted the plan for the French troops to break through to Ukraine and forced the enemy to retreat along the Old Smolensk Road, which they had destroyed.

From Mozhaisk the French army resumed its movement towards Smolensk along the road along which it advanced on Moscow

The final defeat of the French troops took place when crossing the Berezina. The battles of November 26-29 between the French corps and the Russian armies of Chichagov and Wittgenstein on both banks of the Berezina River during Napoleon's crossing went down in history as battle on the Berezina.

The French retreat through the Berezina on November 17 (29), 1812. Peter von Hess (1844)

When crossing the Berezina, Napoleon lost 21 thousand people. In total, up to 60 thousand people managed to cross the Berezina, most of them civilians and non-combat-ready remnants of the “Great Army”. Unusually severe frosts, which struck during the crossing of the Berezina and continued in the following days, finally exterminated the French, already weakened by hunger. On December 6, Napoleon left his army and went to Paris to recruit new soldiers to replace those killed in Russia.

The main result of the battle on the Berezina was that Napoleon avoided complete defeat in conditions of significant superiority of Russian forces. In the memories of the French, the crossing of the Berezina occupies no less place than the largest Battle of Borodino.

By the end of December, the remnants of Napoleon's army were expelled from Russia.

The "Russian campaign of 1812" was over December 14, 1812.

Results of the war

The main result of the Patriotic War of 1812 was the almost complete destruction of Napoleon's Grand Army.Napoleon lost about 580 thousand soldiers in Russia. These losses include 200 thousand killed, from 150 to 190 thousand prisoners, about 130 thousand deserters who fled to their homeland. The losses of the Russian army, according to some estimates, amounted to 210 thousand soldiers and militias.

In January 1813, the “Foreign Campaign of the Russian Army” began - fighting moved to the territory of Germany and France. In October 1813, Napoleon was defeated in the Battle of Leipzig, and in April 1814 he abdicated the throne of France.

The victory over Napoleon raised the international prestige of Russia as never before, which played a decisive role at the Congress of Vienna and in the following decades exercised a decisive influence on European affairs.

Key dates

12 June 1812- invasion of Napoleon's army into Russia across the Neman River. 3 Russian armies were at a great distance from each other. Tormasov's army, being in Ukraine, could not participate in the war. It turned out that only 2 armies took the blow. But they had to retreat to connect.

August 3rd- a connection between the armies of Bagration and Barclay de Tolly near Smolensk. The enemies lost about 20 thousand, and ours about 6 thousand, but Smolensk had to be abandoned. Even the united armies were 4 times smaller than the enemy!

8 August- Kutuzov was appointed commander-in-chief. An experienced strategist, wounded many times in battles, Suvorov's student was liked by the people.

August, 26th- The Battle of Borodino lasted more than 12 hours. It is considered a general battle. On the approaches to Moscow, the Russians showed massive heroism. The enemy's losses were greater, but our army could not go on the offensive. The numerical superiority of the enemies was still great. Reluctantly, they decided to surrender Moscow in order to save the army.

September October- seat of Napoleon's army in Moscow. His expectations were not met. It was not possible to win. Kutuzov rejected requests for peace. The attempt to escape to the south failed.

October December- expulsion of Napoleon's army from Russia along the destroyed Smolensk road. From 600 thousand enemies there are about 30 thousand left!

December 25, 1812- Emperor Alexander I issued a manifesto on the victory of Russia. But the war had to be continued. Napoleon still had armies in Europe. If they are not defeated, he will attack Russia again. The foreign campaign of the Russian army lasted until victory in 1814.

Prepared by Sergey Shulyak

INVASION (animated film)

The military events of the Patriotic War of 1812 took place on the territory of Russia between it and France. The reason was Alexander I's refusal to support the continental blockade, which Napoleon wanted to use as the main weapon against Great Britain. In addition, France's policy towards European states did not take into account the interests of the Russian Empire. And as a result, the Patriotic War of 1812 began. You will learn briefly but informatively about military operations from this article.

Background to the war

Due to the defeat of the Russian army in the Battle of Friedland in 1807, Alexander I concluded the Peace of Tilsit with Napoleon Bonaparte. By signing the agreement, the head of Russia was obliged to join the continental blockade of the United Kingdom, which, in fact, contradicted the political and economic interests of the empire. This world became a shame and humiliation - this is what the Russian nobility thought. But the Russian government decided to use the Peace of Tilsit for its own purposes to accumulate forces and prepare for war with Bonaparte.

As a result of the Erfurt Congress, the empire took Finland and a number of other territories, and France, in turn, was ready to capture all of Europe. After numerous annexations, Napoleon's army moved significantly closer to the Russian border.

Russian empire

The reasons for the Patriotic War of 1812 on the part of Russia were primarily economic. The terms of the Peace of Tilsit dealt a significant blow to the finances of the empire. For a clear example, here are a number of figures: before 1807, Russian merchants and landowners exported 2.2 million quarters of grain for sale, and after the agreement - only 600 thousand. This reduction led to a drop in the value of this product. At the same time, the export of gold to France in exchange for all sorts of luxury goods increased. These and other events led to the depreciation of money.

The territorial causes of the Patriotic War of 1812 are somewhat complicated due to Napoleon's desire to conquer the whole world. The year 1807 went down in history as the time of the creation of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw from lands that at that time belonged to Poland. The newly formed state wanted to unite all the territories of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. To fulfill the plan, it was necessary to separate from Russia part of the lands that once belonged to Poland.

Three years later, Bonaparte seized the possessions of the Duke of Oldenburg, who was a relative of Alexander I. The Russian emperor demanded the return of the lands, which, of course, did not happen. After these conflicts, talk began to appear about signs of a coming and inevitable war between the two empires.

France

The main reasons for the Patriotic War of 1812 for France were the obstacle to international trade, as a result of which the state of the country's economy noticeably deteriorated. In essence, Napoleon's main and only enemy was Great Britain. The United Kingdom captured the colonies of countries such as India, America and, again, France. Considering that England literally reigned at sea, the only weapon against it would have been a continental blockade.

The reasons for the Patriotic War of 1812 also lie in the fact that, on the one hand, Russia did not want to sever trade relations with Great Britain, and on the other, it was necessary to fulfill the conditions of the Tilsit Peace in favor of France. Finding himself in such a dual situation, Bonaparte saw only one way out - military.

As for the French emperor, he was not a hereditary monarch. In order to prove his legitimacy in holding the crown, he made an offer to the sister of Alexander I, which he was immediately refused. A second attempt to enter into a family union with the fourteen-year-old Princess Anne, who later became Queen of the Netherlands, was also unsuccessful. In 1810, Bonaparte finally married Mary of Austria. This marriage gave Napoleon reliable rear protection in the event of another war with the Russians.

The two-time refusal of Alexander I and Bonaparte's marriage to the princess of Austria led to a crisis of trust between the two empires. This fact served as the first reason due to which the Patriotic War of 1812 occurred. Russia, by the way, itself pushed Napoleon into conflict with its further controversial actions.

Shortly before the start of the first battle, Bonaparte told the Warsaw ambassador Dominique Dufour de Pradt that supposedly in five years he would rule the world, but for this all that remained was to “crush” Russia. Alexander I, constantly fearing the restoration of Poland, pulled several divisions to the border of the Duchy of Warsaw, which, in fact, was the second reason why the Patriotic War of 1812 began. Briefly, this can be formulated as follows: such behavior of the Russian ruler was perceived by the French emperor as a threat to Poland and France.

Further development of the conflict

The first stage was the Belarusian-Lithuanian operation, covering June-July 1812. At that time, Russia managed to protect itself from encirclement in Belarus and Lithuania. Russian troops managed to repel the onslaught of the French in the St. Petersburg direction. The Smolensk operation is considered the second stage of the war, and the third is the campaign against Moscow. The fourth stage is the Kaluga campaign. Its essence was the attempts of French troops to break through in this direction back from Moscow. The fifth period, which ended the war, saw the ousting of Napoleonic army from Russian territory.

Start

On June 24, at six in the morning, the vanguard of Bonaparte’s troops crossed the Neman, reaching the city of Kovno (Lithuania, modern Kaunas). Before the invasion of Russia, a large group of the French army numbering 300 thousand people was concentrated on the border.
As of January 1, 1801, the army of Alexander I numbered 446 thousand people. As a result of recruitment at the start of the war, the number increased to 597 thousand soldiers.

The Emperor addressed the people with an appeal for voluntary mobilization for the protection and defense of the Fatherland. Everyone had the opportunity to join the so-called people's militia, regardless of their type of activity and class.

Battle of Borodino

The largest battle took place on August 26 near the village of Borodino. More and more researchers are inclined to believe that the battle took place over 3 days (from August 24 to 26). In fact, this event marked the beginning of the defeat of Bonaparte's army.

In the battle, 135 thousand French fought with the 120 thousand army of Alexander I. The Russian army lost 44 thousand, while Napoleon lost 58 thousand people. During the battle, the army under the command of Bonaparte managed to capture the Russian positions, but after the end of hostilities, the French had to retreat to previously occupied lines. Thus, it is generally accepted that Russia won this battle. The next day, Commander-in-Chief M.I. Kutuzov ordered a retreat due to large human losses and Napoleon's presence of reserve troops rushing to help the French.

In 1839, a reconstruction of the events of the Battle of Borodino, carried out by Nicholas I, was created for the first time. 150 thousand military personnel ended up on the Borodino field. The centennial anniversary was celebrated no less richly. The film archive has preserved a small amount of chronicle footage of how Nicholas II walked around the formation of soldiers participating in the reconstruction.

Result

The battles of the Patriotic War of 1812 lasted from June 24 to December 26 (new style). And they ended with the complete destruction of Bonaparte’s Grand Army, which included soldiers from Prussia and Austria. On December 21, according to the official Hans Jacob von Auerswald, only a small part of the French soldiers returned back, and even those were in terrible condition. A little later, some of them died from multiple diseases and wounds in their homeland.

The results of the Patriotic War of 1812 cost Napoleon 580 thousand people and about 1200 guns. Historian Modest Bogdanovich estimated the losses of the Russian army at 210 thousand militias and soldiers. In 1813, the War of the Sixth Coalition began, in which European states fought against the plans of Napoleon and his allies. In October of the same year, Bonaparte was defeated in the battle of Leipzig, and in April of the following year he renounced the French crown.

Defeat of France

The reasons for the failure of Napoleon's plans were as follows:

An important role was played by Kutuzov’s military restraint and the political will of Alexander I;

A large number of patriots among the common people and nobility who donated their material resources for the maintenance of the Russian army and their lives for the sake of victory;

A persistent and stubborn guerrilla war, in which even women took part.

Command

The heroes of the Patriotic War of 1812 did everything possible to prevent the French from conquering Russian soil, thanks to which they won a well-deserved victory. Without the dedication of the people and the wisdom of the commanders, Emperor Alexander I would have lost this battle.

Among those who fought, such names as M. I. Golenishchev-Kutuzov, S. Volkonsky, M. B. Barclay de Tolly, D. Golitsyn, D. S. Dokhturov, I. S. Dorokhov, P. Konovnitsyn, D. P. Neverovsky, D. V. Davydov, P. I. Bagration, M. I. Platov, A. I. Kutaisov, A. P. Ermolov, N. N. Raevsky, P. H. Wittgenstein and others.

But the main fighter against Napoleon’s aggression was the ordinary Russian people. Victory in the Patriotic War of 1812 belongs to the voluntarily mobilized population, which withstood all the hardships of a hitherto unprecedented war. Many award documents testify to the massive heroism of the soldiers. More than four dozen officers were personally rewarded by Kutuzov with the Order of St. George.

Human losses of France and Russia

The data given below was published by historian S. Shvedov on the 175th anniversary of the end of the battle. The history of the Patriotic War of 1812, written by different researchers of the theater of operations, has significant differences in the issue of human losses.

On average, we can confidently say that the number of war victims from Russia reached 300 thousand, most of whom (175 thousand) were the mobilized part of the population. There are many factors that led to this outcome:

Rapid exhaustion of people due to movement over long distances;

Unfavorable climatic conditions;

There is an urgent need for more water, food and warm clothing;

Diseases and epidemics.

As for France, for it the results of the Patriotic War of 1812 took on a more serious form. The number of French killed is much greater than that of Russians. At the beginning of the war, Napoleon's army that entered the territory of the empire numbered 480 thousand soldiers. At the end of the war, Bonaparte withdrew only 20 thousand survivors from Russia, leaving about 150 thousand prisoners and 850 guns.

About the name

The course of the Patriotic War of 1812 lasted 7 months. From the first day of the battles, it acquired a movement of national liberation from Napoleon's aggression. The popular trend was the main reason for the victory Russian army over French.

This war became a real test of the cohesion of the Russian people. All classes, regardless of state rank, material and property status, came to the defense of their Fatherland. This is where the name came from. One way or another, all the people who participated in the battles are real heroes of the Patriotic War of 1812.

● French soldiers never cooked or ate porridge, as the Russians do. Their field cuisine has different traditions.

● In Russia there is a lyceum, which bears the name of the ataman of the Patriotic War, Matvey Platov.

● On December 12, 1812, in honor of the victory over Bonaparte, Alexander I proclaimed the forgiveness of those people who helped the French army.

● M. Barclay de Tolly in 1812 created the first military intelligence service in Russia.