Standards of literary language are mandatory for everyone. Language norms: concept, types. Violation and change of language norms. Linguistic norms of the Russian language. The concept of language norm
In literary language, the following types of norms are distinguished:
– norms of written and oral forms of speech;
– norms of written speech;
- norms of oral speech.
To the norms general for oral and written speech, include:
– lexical norms;
– grammatical norms;
– stylistic norms.
Special norms of written speech are:
– spelling standards;
– punctuation standards.
Only for oral speech applicable:
- pronunciation standards;
– stress norms;
– intonation norms.
Norms common to oral and written speech relate to linguistic content and text construction.
Lexical norms, or norms of word usage, are norms that determine the correctness of choosing a word from a number of units that are close to it in meaning or form, as well as its use in the meanings that it has in the literary language. Lexical norms are reflected in explanatory dictionaries, dictionaries of foreign words, terminological dictionaries and reference books. Compliance with lexical norms is the most important condition for the accuracy of speech and its correctness. Their violation leads to lexical errors different types(examples of errors from applicants’ essays):
incorrect choice of a word from a number of units, including confusion of paronyms, inaccurate choice of a synonym, incorrect choice of a unit of the semantic field ( bone type of thinking, analyze the life activity of writers, Nikolaev aggression, Russia experienced many incidents in domestic and foreign policy in those years);
violation of lexical compatibility norms ( a herd of hares, under the yoke of humanity, a secret curtain, ingrained foundations, went through all stages of human development);
the contradiction between the speaker’s intention and the emotional and evaluative connotations of the word ( Pushkin correctly chose the path of life and walked along it, leaving indelible traces; He made an incredible contribution to the development of Russia);
use of anachronisms ( Lomonosov entered the institute; Raskolnikov studied at the university); . a mixture of linguistic and cultural realities (Lomonosov lived hundreds of miles from the capital);
incorrect use of phraseological units ( Youth was flowing out of him; We need to take him out to fresh water.).
Grammar rules are divided into word-formation, morphological and syntactic. Grammatical norms are described in "Russian Grammar" (M., 1980, vol. 1-2), prepared by the Academy of Sciences, in Russian language textbooks and grammatical reference books.
Word formation norms determine the order of combining parts of a word and forming new words. A word-formation error is the use of non-existent derived words instead of existing derived words with a different affix, for example, character description, salesmanship, hopelessness, the writer’s works are distinguished by depth and truthfulness.
Morphological norms require the correct formation of grammatical forms of words different parts speech (forms of gender, number, short forms and degrees of comparison of adjectives, etc.). A typical violation of morphological norms is the use of a word in a non-existent or inflectional form that does not correspond to the context ( analyzed image, reigning order, victory over fascism, called Plyushkin a hole). Sometimes you can hear such phrases: railway rail, imported shampoo, customized parcel post, patent leather shoes. There is a morphological error in these phrases - the gender of the nouns is incorrectly formed.
Syntactic norms prescribe the correct construction of basic syntactic units - phrases and sentences. These norms include rules for word agreement and syntactic control, relating parts of a sentence to each other using the grammatical forms of words so that the sentence is a literate and meaningful statement. Violation of syntactic norms is found in the following examples: Reading it, the question arises; The poem is characterized by a synthesis of lyrical and epic principles; Married to his brother, none of the children were born alive.
Stylistic norms determine the use of linguistic means in accordance with the laws of the genre, the features of the functional style and, more broadly, with the purpose and conditions of communication. Unmotivated use of words of a different stylistic connotation in the text causes stylistic errors. Stylistic norms are recorded in explanatory dictionaries as special notes, and are commented on in textbooks on the stylistics of the Russian language and speech culture. Stylistic errors consist of violating stylistic norms, including units in the text that do not correspond to the style and genre of the text. The most common stylistic mistakes are:
stylistic inappropriateness ( obsessive, royal chaos, doesn't care, the love conflict is depicted in all its glory– in the text of an essay, in a business document, in an analytical article);
the use of cumbersome, unsuccessful metaphors ( Pushkin and Lermontov are two rays of light in a dark kingdom; Did he have the right to cut off this thread of life that he did not hang himself?);
lexical deficiency ( This question worries me deeply);
lexical redundancy ( He wakes them up so that they wake up; We must turn to the period of their life, that is, to the period of time when they lived);
ambiguity ( Oblomov's only entertainment is Zakhar; All actions and relationships between Olga and Oblomov were incomplete).
Spelling standards- these are the rules for naming words in writing. They include rules for designating sounds with letters, rules for continuous, hyphenated and separate spelling of words, rules for the use of capital letters and graphic abbreviations, and rules for hyphenating words.
Punctuation standards determine the use of punctuation marks. Punctuation tools have the following functions:
delimitation in a written text of one syntactic structure (or its element) from another;
fixation in the text of the left and right boundaries of a syntactic structure or its element;
combining several syntactic structures into one whole in a text.
The norms of spelling and punctuation are enshrined in the “Rules of Russian Spelling and Punctuation” (M., 1956), the only most complete and officially approved set of spelling rules, published twice - in 1956 and 1962. Based on these rules, various reference books on spelling and punctuation have been compiled.
Orthoepic norms include norms of pronunciation, stress and intonation. Compliance with orthoepic norms is an important part of the culture of speech, since their violation creates in listeners an unpleasant impression of the speech and the speaker himself, and distracts from the perception of the content of the speech. Orthoepic norms are recorded in orthoepic dictionaries of the Russian language and dictionaries of accents. Intonation norms are described in “Russian Grammar” (Moscow, 1980) and Russian language textbooks.
In literary language, the following types of norms are distinguished:
– norms of written and oral forms of speech;
– norms of written speech;
- norms of oral speech.
To the norms general for oral and written speech, include:
– lexical norms;
– grammatical norms;
– stylistic norms.
Special norms of written speech are:
– spelling standards;
– punctuation standards.
Only for oral speech applicable:
- pronunciation standards;
– stress norms;
– intonation norms.
Norms common to oral and written speech relate to linguistic content and text construction.
Lexical norms, or norms of word usage, are norms that determine the correctness of choosing a word from a number of units that are close to it in meaning or form, as well as its use in the meanings that it has in the literary language. Lexical norms are reflected in explanatory dictionaries, dictionaries of foreign words, terminological dictionaries and reference books. Compliance with lexical norms is the most important condition for the accuracy of speech and its correctness. Their violation leads to lexical errors of various types (examples of errors from the essays of applicants):
incorrect choice of a word from a number of units, including confusion of paronyms, inaccurate choice of a synonym, incorrect choice of a unit of the semantic field ( bone type of thinking, analyze the life activity of writers, Nikolaev aggression, Russia experienced many incidents in domestic and foreign policy in those years);
violation of lexical compatibility norms ( a herd of hares, under the yoke of humanity, a secret curtain, ingrained foundations, went through all stages of human development);
the contradiction between the speaker’s intention and the emotional and evaluative connotations of the word ( Pushkin correctly chose the path of life and walked along it, leaving indelible traces; He made an incredible contribution to the development of Russia);
use of anachronisms ( Lomonosov entered the institute; Raskolnikov studied at the university); a mixture of linguistic and cultural realities (Lomonosov lived hundreds of miles from the capital);
incorrect use of phraseological units ( Youth was flowing out of him; We need to take him out to fresh water.).
Grammar rules are divided into word-formation, morphological and syntactic. Grammatical norms are described in "Russian Grammar" (M., 1980, vol. 1-2), prepared by the Academy of Sciences, in Russian language textbooks and grammatical reference books.
Word formation norms determine the order of combining parts of a word and forming new words. A word-formation error is the use of non-existent derived words instead of existing derived words with a different affix, for example, character description, salesmanship, hopelessness, the writer’s works are distinguished by depth and truthfulness.
Morphological norms require the correct formation of grammatical forms of words of different parts of speech (forms of gender, number, short forms and degrees of comparison of adjectives, etc.). A typical violation of morphological norms is the use of a word in a non-existent or inflectional form that does not correspond to the context ( analyzed image, reigning order, victory over fascism, called Plyushkin a hole). Sometimes you can hear such phrases: railway rail, imported shampoo, customized parcel post, patent leather shoes. There is a morphological error in these phrases - the gender of the nouns is incorrectly formed.
Syntactic norms prescribe the correct construction of basic syntactic units - phrases and sentences. These norms include rules for word agreement and syntactic control, relating parts of a sentence to each other using the grammatical forms of words so that the sentence is a literate and meaningful statement. Violation of syntactic norms is found in the following examples: Reading it, the question arises; The poem is characterized by a synthesis of lyrical and epic principles; Married to his brother, none of the children were born alive.
Stylistic norms determine the use of linguistic means in accordance with the laws of the genre, the features of the functional style and, more broadly, with the purpose and conditions of communication. Unmotivated use of words of a different stylistic connotation in the text causes stylistic errors. Stylistic norms are recorded in explanatory dictionaries as special notes, and are commented on in textbooks on the stylistics of the Russian language and speech culture. Stylistic errors consist of violating stylistic norms, including units in the text that do not correspond to the style and genre of the text. The most common stylistic mistakes are:
stylistic inappropriateness ( obsessive, royal chaos, doesn't care, the love conflict is depicted in all its glory– in the text of an essay, in a business document, in an analytical article);
the use of cumbersome, unsuccessful metaphors ( Pushkin and Lermontov are two rays of light in a dark kingdom; Did he have the right to cut off this thread of life that he did not hang himself?);
lexical deficiency ( This question worries me deeply);
lexical redundancy ( He wakes them up so that they wake up; We must turn to the period of their life, that is, to the period of time when they lived);
ambiguity ( Oblomov's only entertainment is Zakhar; All actions and relationships between Olga and Oblomov were incomplete).
Spelling standards- these are the rules for naming words in writing. They include rules for designating sounds with letters, rules for continuous, hyphenated and separate spelling of words, rules for the use of capital letters and graphic abbreviations, and rules for hyphenating words.
Punctuation standards determine the use of punctuation marks. Punctuation tools have the following functions:
delimitation in a written text of one syntactic structure (or its element) from another;
fixation in the text of the left and right boundaries of a syntactic structure or its element;
combining several syntactic structures into one whole in a text.
The norms of spelling and punctuation are enshrined in the “Rules of Russian Spelling and Punctuation” (M., 1956), the only most complete and officially approved set of spelling rules, published twice - in 1956 and 1962. Based on these rules, various reference books on spelling and punctuation have been compiled.
Orthoepic norms include norms of pronunciation, stress and intonation. Compliance with orthoepic norms is an important part of the culture of speech, since their violation creates in listeners an unpleasant impression of the speech and the speaker himself, and distracts from the perception of the content of the speech. Orthoepic norms are recorded in orthoepic dictionaries of the Russian language and dictionaries of accents. Intonation norms are described in “Russian Grammar” (Moscow, 1980) and Russian language textbooks.
Literary language is usually called strictly standardized form national language.
Literary norm is a set of rules for the use of words, their pronunciation, spelling, formation, modification, combination of words and construction of sentences. Literary norms permeate all levels of language and affect all units of language (see table on p. 6), that is, literary norms are characterized by systematicity and connection with the structure of the language. A literary norm is a uniform, generally accepted use of elements of a literary language during a certain period of its development.
Literary norms are a historical phenomenon. They express, on the one hand, the desire of the language for stability and universality, and on the other hand, the desire for change and instability. Norms develop over certain periods of language development approximately as follows: from variants simultaneously existing in the language ( cities - cities, trains - trains etc.) one is gradually selected, the most commonly used in the speech of the educated layer of the population, it is supported by fiction, recognized by society as ideal for communication, protected by the state and entered into dictionaries and reference books, becoming mandatory. This last stage of developing norms is called codification, therefore literary norms are codified norms, i.e., listed in dictionaries and reference books. Norms are not invented by linguists, but are created by the speech practice of the most educated strata of society and are processed “under the pen” of writers, publicists, politicians, and scientists; as a result of the efforts of speakers, artists, in texts of a wide variety of contents and purposes, in the media, in various genres of public and stage speech. Thus, we can name the following main sources of norms:
1) classical fiction (from A.S. Pushkin to A.I. Solzhenitsyn), the classical language of theater (in modern theatrical productions, unfortunately, deviations from the norms are often allowed);
2) the language of the media, uncontaminated with vulgarisms (in modern conditions this is mainly the language of information programs on radio and television, programs of the TV channel “Culture”, the language of information newspaper genres);
3) oral and written speech educated people, representatives of the intelligentsia not in the first generation;
4) data from questionnaire surveys of the population, Scientific research linguists.
The literary norm should be stable, but it can change over time. This quality of literary norm is usually called relative stability norms. The norm is twofold: it both regulates speech practice and, in fact, is extracted from it. A change in the norm is usually preceded by the appearance of variants (see above), and this change occurs under the influence of the following sources, which can be called sources of norm change:
a) colloquial speech (for example, forms plural nouns ending in –a: tractor, doctor, professor, city, train etc.);
b) local dialects (for example, they were dialectal, but the words became literary borrowing, kneading, arable land, plowing, frying pan, grip and etc.);
c) professional jargon ( conductor, cruiser, huntsman and under.);
d) vernacular (for example, in modern dictionaries it is allowed to use the word coffee as a neuter noun);
e) other languages (for example, the norm of pronunciation of the word alcohol at the beginning of the twentieth century. there was stress on the first syllable under the influence German language, in the middle of the twentieth century. the emphasis in it moved to the last syllable under the influence of the French language; the norm of pronunciation of the word college back in the second half of the twentieth century. there was an emphasis on the last syllable and in dictionaries it was indicated “not college”, but at the turn of the millennium under the influence in English The pronunciation “college” has also become standard).
The process of changing norms can affect not only individual units of language, but also entire language levels. So, in the 15th century. In Moscow, rounded pronunciation was widespread, and by the end of the 16th century. As a result of the large influx of the southern Russian population, Okanye was replaced by Akanye. In Moscow, which became the capital of the centralized Russian state, all-Russian pronunciation standards were gradually formed, which, through democratic fiction and business language, spread to the rest of the territory. That is why in the modern Russian literary language, with the “okay” (Old Russian) spelling, the norm of pronunciation is a moderate akan (in place of the unstressed / O/ a sound is pronounced, in between / O/ And / A/): d/\horns, k/\rowa, m/\roses.
The most important role of literary norms is that they “cement” the speech of the entire society and resist dialect and individual diversity. The norm is one of the most important conditions for the stability, unity and identity of the national language.
The norm is characterized by: 1) relative stability, 2) prevalence throughout the country, 3) common use, 4) universally binding, 5) compliance with the capabilities of the language system.
According to the degree of normativity, it is customary to distinguish the following types of norms:
1. Strict (mandatory) norm (1st degree norm) - in this case, the dictionaries provide the only correct option: alphabet, mu/z`/Ey, pio/n`/Er. Sometimes there are prohibitive marks “not”, “not recommended”, “wrong”, for example: It's calling, not right. * It's ringing.
2. Neutral the norm (2nd degree norm) presupposes the presence of two equal options, indicated without dictionary marks: loop - loop, rust – rust.
3. Movable norm (norm of the 3rd degree) contains two unequal options, the first of which is preferable , and the second may have the marks “colloquial”, “special”, “professional”, “additional”: on holiday - decomposition on vacation; compass – special, prof. compass; coffee- husband. gender, additional Wed genus. This normative-stylistic options (differ in style). The first option was called the “senior norm”, i.e. recommended, more strict, the only one possible in stage and announcer speech. The second (reduced) option is called the “junior norm”, i.e. acceptable, freer, usually characteristic of colloquial speech. Label "obsolete." characterizes normative-chronological options that differ in time of use: angle- outdated cancerUrs; slates- outdated stylus; Now- outdated now. Since the norms of the 2nd and 3rd degrees contain options (equal or unequal), they are called variant norms.
Thus, the development of a literary language is essentially the formation, development and improvement of its norms in accordance with the needs of society and due to the internal laws of linguistic development.
CHAPTER 2. STYLISTIC SYSTEM
MODERN RUSSIAN LITERARY LANGUAGE
2.1 . general characteristics functional styles
modern Russian literary language
The word “style” arose from the Latin stilus (pointed writing stick) and has many meanings, the most common of which is the manner of writing, a set of techniques for using linguistic means ( Pushkin's style, Gogol's style, solemn style, fable style and under.). In understanding the term “functional style” great importance has the first word, it emphasizes that varieties of literary language are distinguished on the basis of the function (role) that the language performs in each specific case.
In the very general view it is customary to consider three language functions:
Communicative, i.e. the function of direct communication;
Informative, i.e. the function of storing and transmitting information;
Influential, i.e. the function of influencing the addressee.
The following are distinguished: spheres of communication(areas of language application): scientific, journalistic, official business, artistic and everyday.
In accordance with the functions of language and areas of communication, five functional styles have been identified in the modern Russian literary language (see Fig. 2).
and n
Rice. 2. The structure of the literary language
Functional style is a type of language characterized by the selection and combination of linguistic means in connection with the functions of the language, in accordance with the tasks of communication, depending on the content of the statement, the situation (official or informal) and the sphere of communication.
The differences between functional styles are due to the following circumstances.
Firstly, with language functions: the scientific style serves the informative function of the language, the colloquial style serves the communicative function, some styles combine different functions, for example, journalistic - the function of influencing and communicating information, official business - the same functions, but with a predominance of information, and the artistic (most complex) style, in addition to the three named, performs its own special functions, for example, aesthetic.
Secondly, functional styles are used in different areas of communication, which also gives rise to differences in the content of communication, for example, scientific communication about everyday facts or everyday communication about problems of cosmogony or elementary particles is unlikely. Vocabulary is most dependent on the content of speech, hence the lexical differences in different functional styles, indicated by the dictionary marks “special..”, “med.”, “physical.”, “tech.”, “colloquial.”, “poet.”, “ bran." etc.
Thirdly, the differences are related to form of speech, so a conversational style, mainly implemented in orally, is opposed to all the others (books), the main form of existence of which is written speech, hence the immediacy of communication in a conversational style and the indirectness of communication in books.
Fourthly, with types of leaks(monologue, dialogue, polylogue). Book styles are monologue speech, while conversational style usually manifests itself in dialogue or polylogue.
Fifthly, with a degree formality and personality of communication Everyday communication occurs in an unofficial setting and with obligatory personality, i.e., addressing a specific interlocutor (conversational style); for other styles, formality is obligatory (official business and journalistic styles) or probable (scientific style). Personal communication is impossible for a journalistic style and is unlikely for scientific and official business styles. The artistic style in this regard is very original and variable depending on the author and genre.
Each functional style is characterized by a set of features, some of which are uniquely repeated in other styles, but their specific combination distinguishes one linguistic style from another.
Within each style we can distinguish substyles(varieties), for example, within the scientific style there are strictly scientific (academic), scientific-educational, popular science, scientific and technical substyles, within the official-business style - legislative, diplomatic and administrative-clerical substyles, etc.
With all my individual characteristics functional styles do not form closed systems; they can to interact, that is, elements of one style can be used in another style. Yes, most open for the penetration of elements of other styles is art style(language of fiction), most closed, closed is considered an official business style, but it also creates hybrid genres, in which the official business style is combined with the journalistic style, for example: program documents of political parties, the President’s New Year’s speech, a note of protest, etc. The journalistic style is even more indicative, since in its informative genres (news column in a newspaper, information broadcasts on radio and television, etc.) signs of scientific and official business styles are manifested, in the interview genre - features of conversational style and slang-slang speech, in the genre of feuilleton, humoresque - features of the artistic style.
Mastery of functional styles of literary language is a necessary element of the speech culture of any specialist (company manager, politician, lawyer, etc.).
Essay
Topic: Standards of modern Russian language
Introduction
1 The concept of a language norm and its functions
2 Norms of modern Russian language
3 Language norms and speech practice
Conclusion
List of used literature
Introduction
The history and culture of the people is reflected in the language. Moreover, the most essential part of the collective experience of a people, which manifests itself in intellectual activity and in the “inner world” of a person, finds its expression through language in oral speech and in written texts.
The concepts of “normal” and “norm” are important for many types of human activity. There are standards for the production of products (for example, at a factory) and normals, i.e. technical requirements that these products must satisfy. Nutritionists talk about nutritional standards, athletes “fit” into certain standards (in running, in jumping). No one doubts the fact that in any civilized society there are norms of relationships between people, norms of etiquette; Each of us has an idea of what is normal for human communication, and what is abnormal, goes beyond the limits of some unwritten norm. And our everyday speech is replete with these words: How are you? - Fine!; Well how are you? - Nothing, it’s normal. Moreover, the norm is invisibly present in our statements that do not contain the words norm or normal. When we say: a comfortable chair, a too dark room, inexpressive singing, we mean certain generally accepted “norms” for the comfort of a chair, the lighting of the room, and the expressiveness of singing.
There is a norm in language too. And this is quite natural: language is an integral part of not only civilized, but generally any human society. Normativity is compliance with language norms, which are perceived by its speakers as an “ideal” or correct model.
Language norm is one of the components national culture. Therefore, the development of a literary norm, its codification, and the reflection of the normalizing activities of linguists in grammars, dictionaries and reference books are of great social and cultural importance.
All of the above justifies the relevance of this topic.
Purpose of the work: a comprehensive study and analysis of the norms of the modern Russian language.
The work consists of an introduction, 3 chapters, a conclusion and a list of references.
1 The concept of a language norm and its functions
Norm is one of the central linguistic concepts. Most often this term is used in combination with “literary norm” and is applied to those varieties of language that are used in media mass media, in science and education, in diplomacy, lawmaking and legislation, in business and legal proceedings and other areas of “socially important”, mainly public communication. But we can talk about the norm in relation to a territorial dialect or social jargon. Thus, linguists use the term norm in two senses - broad and narrow.
In a broad sense, the norm refers to such means and ways of speech that have been spontaneously formed over many centuries and which usually distinguish one type of language from others. That’s why we can talk about a norm in relation to a territorial dialect: for example, normal for Northern Russian dialects is Okanye, and for Southern Russian dialects - Akanye. Any social or professional jargon is also “normal” in its own way: for example, what is used in trade argot will be rejected as alien by those who speak the jargon of carpenters; established ways of using linguistic means exist in army jargon and in the jargon of musicians-“labukhs”, and speakers of each of these jargons can easily distinguish someone else’s from their own, familiar and therefore normal for them, etc.
In a narrow sense, a norm is the result of the codification of language. Of course, codification is based on the tradition of the existence of language in a given society, on some unwritten but generally accepted ways of using linguistic means. But it is important that codification is the purposeful ordering of everything related to language and its application. The results of codifying activities are reflected in normative dictionaries and grammars.
The norm as a result of codification is inextricably linked with the concept of literary language, which is otherwise called normalized or codified. The territorial dialect, urban vernacular, social and professional jargons are not subject to codification: after all, no one consciously and purposefully makes sure that Vologda residents consistently okal, and residents of the Kursk village Akali, so that sellers, God forbid, do not use the terminology of carpenters, and soldiers - words and expressions of Labouche jargon, and therefore the concept of norm in the narrow sense of this term just discussed is not applicable to such varieties of language - dialects, jargons.
Language norms are not invented by scientists. They reflect natural processes and phenomena that have occurred and are occurring in the language and are supported by the speech practice of native speakers of a literary language. The main sources of the language norm include the works of classical writers and some modern writers, the language of Central Television announcers, generally accepted modern usage, data from live and questionnaire surveys, scientific research by linguists, the language system (analogs), and the opinion of the majority of speakers.
Norms help the literary language maintain its integrity and general intelligibility. They protect the literary language from the flow of dialect speech, social and professional jargon, and vernacular. This is an important function of norms - the function of protecting the language. In addition, norms reflect what has developed historically in a language - this is a function of reflecting the history of the language.
Speaking about the essence of a norm, it should be remembered that a norm is not a law. The law constitutes a necessity that does not allow any deviations, while the norm only prescribes how it should be. Let's compare the following examples:
1. A stone thrown up must then fall down (this is a law of nature);
2. A person living in a society must follow the rules of the community, for example, not knocking on the wall with a hammer after 11 pm (these are social norms);
3. A person in the process of verbal communication must place stress correctly (these are language norms).
So, the norm only indicates how it should be - this is the function of the prescription.
Thus, a language norm is the traditionally established rules for the use of speech means, i.e. rules of exemplary and generally accepted pronunciation, use of words, phrases and sentences.
2 Norms of modern Russian language
There are written and oral norms.
Written language norms are, first of all, spelling and punctuation norms. For example, the spelling N in the word worker, and НН in the word nameNNik, is subject to certain spelling rules. And the placement of a dash in the sentence Moscow is the capital of Russia is explained punctuation standards modern Russian language.
Oral norms are divided into grammatical, lexical and orthoepic.
Grammar rules are the rules for using the forms of different parts of speech, as well as the rules for constructing a sentence. The most common grammatical errors associated with the use of the gender of nouns are “railroad rail, French shampoo, big corn, registered parcel, patent leather shoes.” However, rail, shampoo is a masculine noun, and callus, parcel, shoe are feminine, so we should say “railroad rail, French shampoo and large callus, customized parcel, patent leather shoe.”
Lexical norms are the rules for using words in speech. An error is, for example, using the verb lay down instead of putting. Despite the fact that the verbs lay down and put down have the same meaning, put down is a normative literary word, and lay down is a colloquial word. The expressions: I put the book back in its place, etc. are errors. The verb to put should be used: I put the books in place.
Orthoepic norms are pronunciation norms of oral speech. (Orthoepy from the Greek orthos - correct and epos - speech). Compliance with pronunciation standards is important for the quality of our speech. Pronunciation that corresponds to orthoepic standards facilitates and speeds up the process of communication, therefore the social role of correct pronunciation is very great, especially now in our society, where oral speech has become a means of the widest communication at various meetings, conferences, and forums.
The norm is conservative and is aimed at preserving the linguistic means and rules for their use accumulated in a given society by previous generations. The unity and universality of the norm are manifested in the fact that representatives of different social strata and groups that make up a given society are obliged to adhere to traditional ways linguistic expression, as well as those rules and regulations contained in grammars and dictionaries and which are the result of codification. Deviation from linguistic tradition, from dictionary and grammatical rules and recommendations is considered a violation of the norm. However, it is no secret that at all stages of the development of a literary language, when using it in different communicative conditions, variants of linguistic means are allowed: you can say cottage cheese - and cottage cheese, spotlights - and spotlights, you are right - and you are right, etc.
The norm relies on traditional ways of using language and is wary of linguistic innovations. “The norm is recognized as what was, and partly what is, but not at all what will be,” wrote the famous linguist A.M. Peshkovsky. He explained this property of both the literary norm and the literary language itself: “If the literary dialect changed quickly, then each generation could only use the literature of its own and the previous generation, many two. But under such conditions there would be no literature itself, since the literature of each generation is created by all previous literature. If Chekhov had not already understood Pushkin, then Chekhov probably would not have existed. Too thin a layer of soil would provide too little nutrition for literary sprouts. The conservatism of the literary dialect, uniting centuries and generations, creates the possibility of a single powerful centuries-old national literature.” However, the conservatism of a norm does not mean its complete immobility in time. It is another matter that the pace of normative changes is slower than the development of a given national language as a whole. The more developed the literary form of a language is, the better it serves the communicative needs of society, the less it changes from generation to generation of people using this language.
1. Varieties of literary language.
2. Definition of norms and types of norms.
1. VARIETIES OF LITERARY LANGUAGE
Literary language and its non-literary variants.
The national language is a combination of its following varieties.
Literary language- this is an exemplary version of the language, which is intended to serve the diverse cultural needs of the entire people, is used in government agencies, science, education, the media, fiction and is subject to strictly defined rules, which are called norms.
Vernacular used in the speech of poorly educated strata of the urban population, giving it an incorrect and rude character.
You've heard people sometimes say: “Her daughter got married” (instead of her), “tranvay” (instead of tram), “trolleybus” (instead of trolleybus).
Vernacular speech has a number of typical features in the field of vocabulary, morphology, phonetics and syntax.
There is a special type of colloquial expressive words that have a connotation of rudeness and are used for greater expressiveness (slap, get drunk, get dressed up, ugly, muzzle - about a person). Such words are marked “simple” in dictionaries. - colloquial. They can be used by both insufficiently cultured people and native speakers of a literary language. They are also found in fiction as a stylistic means to characterize the speech of uncultured characters, as, for example, in the stories of M. Zoshchenko, where words like “polta”, “stanov”, “forever”, etc. are not uncommon.
Dialects(from the Greek Dialektos - “talk, adverb”, where dia - “through”, lektos - “able to be spoken”) - non-literary varieties of the Russian language that are used by people in certain territories in rural areas.
The differences between the literary language and dialects pass through all levels of the language system: pronunciation features - phonetic level; in its own special words - lexical; and elements of grammar - grammatical.
Thus, the Tula dialect is characterized by the pronunciation of [g] fricative and its corresponding deafening in [x]: instead of the literary [druk], Tula people pronounce [drukh].
The question of the difference between language and dialect is very complex. Often different languages are closer to each other than dialects of the same language are to each other.
If two linguistic entities have a common literary norm, then they are recognized as dialects of the same language.
Jargon(from the French jargon) is a non-literary version of the language that is used in casual communication within some social groups.
Youth jargon (student, school), jargon of fishermen, athletes, filmmakers, computer jargon, and thieves' argot are known. Communication between people in jargon is only possible if it involves representatives of the same team who understand each other well, and the subject of the conversation does not go beyond a fairly narrow range of topics.
So, for example, in the jargon of pilots, the bottom of the fuselage is called the belly, a training aircraft is called ladybug. If the plane is pulled upward by the force of the air flow, then it swells; if its nose drops sharply, then the plane bites. Aerobatics also have metaphorical names: barrel, slide, etc.
2.
THE CONCEPT OF STANDARDS AND TYPES OF STANDARDS
If you think about what makes up the specifics of speech culture as a special linguistic discipline, you cannot help but notice that the problem of literary norms is especially important for it.
In a literary language, pronunciation, as well as the choice of words and the use of grammatical forms, is subject to certain rules and norms.
The most important feature of a literary language is the presence of norms, i.e.
Certain rules that all members of society must follow.Language norms are a historical phenomenon. The history of the formation of a language is the history of the formation of a norm.
The most important sign of a culture of speech is its correctness. The correctness of speech is determined by compliance with the norms inherent in the literary language.
What is the norm? What are the standards? What makes them special? This is a question that needs to be answered.
Norm – rules for the use of speech means in a certain period of development of a literary language. Another definition: the most suitable language option for communication (S. I. Ozhegov).
The norm is mandatory for both oral and written speech and covers all aspects of the language. There are norms of orthoepic, spelling, syntactic, lexical, morphological, punctuation, intonation. All norms are registered in dictionaries of grammar, spelling, stylistics, etc., such fixation of a language norm is now commonly called codification. In cases of sufficient frequency and regularity, codification does not present difficulties and is equal to an objectively existing norm. The situation is more complicated when there are options in speech, because it is in this situation that the problem of choice arises and the problem of comparison, evaluation of options from the point of view of their “literariness”, compliance with norms modern language.
The culture of speech begins where language seems to offer a choice for codification, and this choice is far from clear-cut.
And it is possible because variant (or variable) norms are quite widely represented in the Russian language.
A variant is “formal modifications of the same unit, found at different levels of language (phonetic, lexical, morphological, syntactic).” The options can be equal (rust/vet - rust/th) and unequal (beets - beets).
Unequal options may vary:
- by meaning – semantic variants: i/rice (flower) – iri/s (candy);
- relate to different language styles - stylistic (eyes - neutral style; eyes - - bookish);
- to be modern or outdated - normative-chronological options: stylus (modern) - stylus (obsolete).
Thus, the norm evaluates linguistic forms and their use on a scale:
correct - acceptable - incorrect.
Compliance with norms at all levels of language is a sign of correct and cultural speech.