What material are pen refills made of? Parker. Technical description of various types of handles. Cost and brands

All modern pens can be divided into two large classes:fountain pens and traditional pens.

According to the design of the writing unit handles are divided into:

• ball (includes a ball made of metal);
• capillary (work on the principle of a felt-tip pen, supplying ink through the fibers);
• feather

“Liners” are usually called pens in which the writing unit is represented by a needle. “Liners” are similar to a rapidograph.

It is not so easy to say exactly which pens are called “rollerballs”. Often the concept of “rollerball” refers to any ballpoint pens from European manufacturers. Essentially, a “rollerball” is a regular ballpoint pen with different types of ink supply.

Another division of pens is based on the type of ink composition and the method of ink delivery. Absolutely all pens, except capillary ones, have a writing element made of hard and compact material. The ink of such pens also has an impenetrable composition. The ink of most pens cannot pass directly through the nib, but is forced to slowly flow down the surface of the writing element.

If you choose from all modern pens the one that is closest to traditional pens, then your choice should be a fountain pen. The main innovation of the fountain pen compared to its predecessors is the absence of the need for constant use of an inkwell. The ink in fountain pens is located inside a special reservoir or inside a cartridge. Fountain pens require the simplest ink to function.

Ballpoint pens, the writing element of which is a metal ball, differ from fountain pens in that they are not capable of scratching paper. As the ball rotates, it takes on the ink contained in the pen body and gently releases it to the paper. The ink is either placed in a tube that ends with a ball-shaped tip, this design is called a “rod,” or in a special cartridge. The presence of a cartridge is typical for modern roller skates.

Ink for ballpoint pens differs significantly in its composition from “feather” ink. Such inks necessarily include various resins that give the ink properties of durability and low fluidity.

In recent years, inks called “oil-based” have become very popular. These inks are used for ballpoint pens, and they are distinguished from traditional “ballpoint” inks by the need to use a writing element of a very small diameter. Reputable manufacturers of writing instruments produce special “oil” pens for their oil inks.

Rollerballs have absorbed all the advantages of both fountain pens and ballpoint pens. Rollerballs have a ball that ensures smooth writing. But rollerball ink is water-based, which makes it similar to fountain pen ink. However, despite being water-based, rollerball ink does not dry out as quickly as fountain pen ink does.

Thanks to the special design of the ink accumulator, which is in contact with the ball, the rollers can write in almost any position. Some models work effectively not only on vertical surfaces, but also in the “end up” position.

Most experts associate the future of writing accessories with gel pens. Gel ink has the consistency of a real gel, which can significantly reduce the amount of friction between the ball and the tip and make writing extra light. Gel ink is in no way inferior to ballpoint ink in terms of characteristics such as gloss and color depth. At the same time, they are significantly more water- and light-resistant than rollerball inks. Currently, the production of gel pens and inks for them is rapidly gaining momentum.

There are also pens on the writing instruments market equipped with ink supply systems called “ink-reservoir” and “free-ink”. At their core, these are roller skates. The ink-reservoir system is characterized by the presence of an ink reservoir that has a fibrous structure. This structure is used in felt-tip pens. The ink-tank system allows you to use ink very economically, but at the same time, the slow flow of ink makes writing much more difficult.

The free-ink system is a direct ink supply system that guarantees smooth and easy writing. The negative side of “free ink” is the high consumption of ink.

What kind of pens do you use?

Ink pens and quills have been used since the beginning of the written era. Despite problems such as ink smearing and unreliable writing instruments, they were quite popular.

The first ballpoint pen was invented by a product manufacturer in 1888 who discovered that an ink pen would not write on uneven surfaces of leather.

His ballpoint pen was far from perfect, but it was the prototype for all future products. The small ball was held in place by a latch. On top of it was a reservoir of ink. When the ball began to rotate, the ink flowed out and remained on the surface of the material.

New type of ink

Over the next 50 years, inventors tried to make the ballpoint pen suitable for writing on paper. Early versions used ink that flowed out under the influence of gravity. In combination with the ball, this ink either clogged the channel or left streaks on the paper.

Laszlo Biro, a newspaper editor, came close to creating a modern ballpoint pen. He noticed that the ink he used dried quickly and never bleed, unlike the substances used in fountain pens. He created a thick, viscous mixture and improved the ballpoint pen by changing the ink.

Ink properties

The ink is specially formulated to dry clearly and quickly. Their viscosity is strictly controlled. The line thickness should be thin enough to allow writing. Therefore, the ink in the pen should be moderately fluid and not blur.

Ink consists of a pigment or dye dissolved or suspended in a solvent. Pigments are tiny colored particles diluted in a solvent. Dyes are completely soluble in liquid. The solvent for most inks is water or oil.

Ink components

The ink in the pen is about 50 percent dye. The black color comes from carbon black (the fine powder made from it). Several dyes are used to make blue ink, but the most common ones consist of triphenylmethane, a copper phthalocyanine. Black-blue inks often contain ferrous sulfate and tannic acid. These additives have been used since the Middle Ages to make the formula more stable.

Dyes and additives are mixed with the solvent. Often this is ethylene glycol or propylene glycol. Synthetic polymers are then added to help disperse the paint and adjust viscosity and surface tension.

Additives such as resins, preservatives and wetting agents are also used. They can be added to adjust the final properties of the ink.

Before we dwell in more detail on each of these writing instruments, we would like to make a short excursion into the history of writing and those utensils that were used for writing.

Historical reference

Writing

The history of writing is a separate scientific discipline, and it will be possible to fully cover it in more than one or two volumes of scientific research. However, a short excursion into history would be useful here.

The first traces of writing (in the form more or less familiar to us), discovered by modern researchers, are about 3000 years old. It was then that people first began to put words and sentences together from individual symbols. The method of writing used in these documents that have survived to this day was from right to left, as they have been preserved even now in some alphabets. The modern way of writing (from left to right) appeared later - in 400 BC. in Ancient Greece. The Greeks laid the foundation for modern alphabets, including the Cyrillic alphabet (the word “alphabet” itself is a fusion of the first two letters of the Greek letter - alpha and beta). The Latin alphabet, based on the older Greek, was formed in Ancient Rome, as a result of Roman expansion, quickly spread across many countries and has reached the present day in almost unchanged form. However, there are many modern variations of it - the style of the letters differs depending on the language.

In Perzhd, only large (capital) letters were used in writing and only from the 7th century AD. lowercase letters and combinations of uppercase and lowercase letters came into use, i.e. It is precisely this moment that can be considered the date of the final formation of modern writing.

Materials

Writing materials, i.e. We are especially interested in what people wrote and in what they wrote.

5000 BC- the inhabitants of Sumer, who lived on the Euphrates River, wrote with sticks on clay tablets.

3000 BC- the inhabitants of Ancient Egypt wrote with reed brushes on papyrus, using colored clay as paints.

200 BC- The Romans use a silver stylus and wax tablet, and the Greeks use reed feathers and parchment.

100th year AD- Chinese residents write with hair brushes and ink on paper.

6th century AD- monks copy texts from the Bible on parchment, using quills and pens, but for everyday writing, sharpened rods and wax tablets were still used, since parchment was very expensive.

15th century- pen and paper began to be widely used by European scientists.

Finally, in 1888, George S. Parker founded in America and since then kept all records and signed all documents with the first high-quality pen he personally developed.

So, for 7,000 years, humanity has been using writing instruments: starting with primitive sticks and clay, going through long centuries of development and making the industrial revolution of the 19th century, people had metal pens and paper at their disposal at prices affordable for everyone. Since then, progress in the production of writing instruments has advanced by leaps and bounds.

Quite quickly, simple metal nibs were replaced by the first fountain pens, and already at the end of the 19th century several very good models appeared. By this time, those who wished could purchase quite good ones. In the 20s of the XX century kit from feather pens and pencils, placed in beautiful packaging, was considered an excellent gift.

In the 40s, the technical capabilities of the industry made it possible to begin producing ballpoint pens. However, they became popular only ten years later, and this is due in no small part to the development of a new one that allowed them to be used for quite a long time without replacing the rod. This new rod, unlike its predecessors, not only did not stain the paper, but also made it possible to use different colors when writing.

Relatively recently, another writing instrument appeared -. It combines the advantages of both - water-based, like in, and a ball, like in, at the same time. You will read more about it below.

A fountain pen

Today, like a hundred years ago, quality is primarily determined by the quality of the pen and the perfection of ink supply to the pen. Whether the ink is drawn into the pen from an inkwell or is used is not at all important. In the same way, the quality of writing is practically not affected by the material from which the pen is made and the external finishing of its body.

Basic parts of a fountain pen

1. Frame
2. Cap *
3. Cap tip
4. Front of the handle
5. Inner wall of the cap
6. Ink reservoir
7. Ink supply system (collector and pen pressure regulator)

Refilling from an inkwell

If you need to write on an airplane or high in the mountains (that is, in conditions of low atmospheric pressure), then you can do this. However, in this case, we recommend that you first insert a new one. Why is this necessary? The fact is that since air expands faster than liquid when pressure decreases, the less air there is in the ink reservoir, the better.

Feather

If ink supply system- the “heart” of a fountain pen, then feather- this is her “soul”. When beautiful feather glides perfectly across the paper, creating an incomparable appearance" pen feeling".

A quality fountain pen should have the most perfect pen. Making such a feather is very difficult. Even today, when the most advanced technologies exist, many stages pen production are performed manually.

Materials used to make feathers include: stainless steel And gold. The choice of material does not have a decisive influence on the elasticity and flexibility of the pen. More significant factors are the magnitude pen, its shape and design, the thoroughness of its grinding, special attention to processing pen points. Therefore, if the pen is not made from gold, and from of stainless steel, then it can be as strong and at the same time flexible and elastic as gold.

Since and steel, And gold wear out quite quickly when writing, pen point made from a more expensive and harder metal (usually the platinum group). This allows the pen to serve for decades while remaining of the same quality.

Very important for pen quality It has incision- longitudinal dissection of the front part of the feather into two halves. This incision is of primary functional importance, so it is performed with special tools and using special technology.

Final procedure for pen production- it is his sharpening. At sharpening the pen its tip receives a certain shape depending on the functions that this pen is designed to perform.

In production feathers for the number of manufacturing process operations reaches 30.

Stages of feather production

• Cutting out a template corresponding to the future pen size
• Stamping of a special pattern, company logo, etc.
• Cutting a hole to which a cut will later be made
• Curling (folding), shaping and edging
• Soldering a tip that matches the width of the pen
• Grinding the tip (tip)
• Making a cut in the body of the pen
• Sanding and polishing
• Installing the Ink Supply System
• Examination

For more process feather making includes some additional steps such as metal engraving and appliqué platinum group ( rhodium, ruthenium). In addition, they are tested after each technological stage.

Types of feathers

Feathers there are straight, beveled - for calligraphy writing. The most common are straight nibs, the least common for calligraphic writing.

Width feathers are also divided into several groups. To make it easier for you to navigate the diversity feather shapes and sizes, we present here their most complete classification.

Now they are supplied to Russia with thin And medium feathers. You can also order feathers of other species if necessary.

Attention! Never write with ink!

Before we dwell on the technical features, let us remember the history of the development of these writing instruments.

Roller design

1. Frame
2. Cap
3. Front of the case
4. Cap tip
5. Inner part of the cap with snap fastening
6. Rollerball rod

There is no information about the history of the creation of ballpoint pens; it will not be difficult to find. Information about rods is also highlighted in a separate section.

But it will be useful to sort and classify the types of pens, as well as help with advice on its choice.

Anatomy of a regular and automatic ballpoint pen

1. Hollow body - there is a rod inside it, if we are talking about a simple pen, and an additional mechanism for returning the rod and a spring, if we are talking about a pen with a return mechanism (fountain pen).

2. Cap - serves to protect the ink from drying out, as well as to prevent the writing mechanism from staining clothing when worn. You probably noticed that the majority of the caps have holes at the base - they serve so that a person, in particular a child, if swallowed, can breathe through them until medical assistance is provided. The same applies to marker caps.

3. The tip - unscrews and is used to fix the return spring of the fountain pen and to change the refill. Cheap pens are made of plastic, while more expensive pens are made of metal, which significantly increases the service life of the pen. The plastic nib is one of the problems with fountain pens; it often cracks and breaks long before the refill runs out.

5. Grip, also known as the grip section, is a rest (often rubber) for the fingers at the base of the handle. Thanks to this small rubber ring, the ease of use of the pen has increased tenfold.

6. Mechanical pen refill feed and return device. Serves to hide the writing unit inside the pen body. The mechanisms are mainly spring and rotary. Sometimes they are sliding.

7. The pen core is a hollow tube filled with ink. As a rule, rods are made of plastic or metal. But we will return to the types of ink below.

8. The actual writing unit of the pen. We will also talk about its types and structure below.

Pen body

They are distinguished by the materials from which the body is made. Let's look at the main ones:

Plastic. The most common due to its simplicity and low cost. A handle made from this material is the lightest. Ideal for people who write a lot, for example, schoolchildren and students.

Metal. Traditionally, premium pens were made from different types of metals (steel, silver, gold, nickel, brass). However, now you can easily find a metal pen at a reasonable price (the Chinese are great =^_^=). It is distinguished not only by its greatest durability, but also by its weight.

Tree. As a rule, it is found as a decorative element of premium pens, but on the Internet you can find an incredible number of homemade pens, the body of which is made of wood.

Handles are also distinguished by types of sections; let’s consider only the main ones:

A circle is the most common cross-section of a pen body. It's unremarkable; the only thing that saves it is the grip installed at the base.

Hexagon - a pencil is taken as the basis of the body, the edges are applied to the body for ease of grip, and so that the handle does not roll off the table, similar to a hexagonal pencil.

The triangle is by far the most ergonomic cross-section of the handle, a finger grip. It is worth noting that some manufacturers took care of left-handed people and made handles not only with a triangular cross-section, but also with special recesses on the grip of the handle, for convenience, with a reverse grip.

Let's combine the types of writing units and inks into one section, because... they are closely related.

Ballpoint writing unit

As a rule, the writing unit and the refill are a single unit (in cheap disposable pens, the pen refill is also the body) and are thrown away after use.

Design and principle of operation: the writing unit is a combination of a metal tube and a rolling bearing. Capillary effect is used to supply ink to the unit.

The ink falls through the tube onto the ball, and when we pass it across the paper, it rotates and transfers the ink from the tube to the paper. Thanks to the special properties of the ink and the small gap between the ball and the walls of the tube, a uniform supply of ink is ensured. Here it is necessary to make a small digression - there are two types of balls:

• metal
• ceramic

Ceramic is preferable, as it is covered with natural mini-craters, due to which it transfers ink more evenly to the paper. In addition, the ceramic ball is not subject to corrosion, although this, by and large, does not really matter.

Today, ballpoint pens are divided into three types based on the type of writing unit and ink.

Ballpoint pen / Ballpoint – classic ballpoint pen

Ink used:

1. Thickened ink/paste. The most common type.
2. Oil based ink. In this case, Semi-gel is indicated on the rod or handle; today this is one of the most progressive inventions in the line of writing instruments.

Ballpoint pens with low-viscosity, oil-based ink provide soft, easy writing with economical ink consumption. The disadvantage of ballpoint pens, no matter how expensive they are, is the so-called. “tight” writing, spoiling handwriting and straining the writer.

Gel pen / Gel / Gel rollerbal – this pen uses ink with a gel consistency.

Thanks to the new type of ink, it was possible to reduce the size of the ball, the pen began to write softer, this is subjective, in my opinion, the majority of gel pens seem to “scratch” the paper.

Ink used - ink tinted gel.

The purpose of inventing the gel pen was the desire to write richly, boldly and brightly. However, when using a regular pen for these purposes, there was a large consumption of ink. If you use regular ink and a larger gap between the ball and the walls of the tube, the pen will flow. Therefore, instead of ordinary ink, a gel tinted with them is used. Gel pens have gained wide popularity due to the incredible number of colors available.

Everyone has seen sets of 24 colors, and on top of that they also sell sets with glitter, neon and pastel colors. Many artists and designers use gel pens. The advantage of such pens is that they can write on almost any surface, unlike ballpoint pens and rollerballs.

The disadvantage of gel pens is the uncontrolled supply of ink, so there will certainly be streaks and stains, both on paper and on hands and clothes. For the same reason, we note the rapid consumption of ink. This pen is not very suitable for writing, although there are amateurs, but it is perfect for artists and designers.

Rollerball pen is the most advanced ballpoint pen model.

This type of writing pen uses a refill filled with liquid ink and a spring-loaded ball in a writing unit at the end.

Ink used

Unlike ballpoint pens, in which the writing material is a paste, rollerballs use a gel or other water-based coloring liquid. Due to its lower viscosity, the ink is better absorbed, which allows rollerballs to leave a more beautiful mark similar to that of a fountain pen. The writing ball typically measures 0.5 and 0.7 mm in diameter, with the refills marked “F” and “M” respectively.

It is also worth noting that the ink used in rollerballs is water-based, which means that they are not waterproof and if moisture gets on the text, there is a high probability of blurring (for example, raindrops). To avoid this, water-based pigment inks are used. That is, the ink contains an insoluble pigment, which, when dried on paper, forms a solid substance that is resistant to moisture. This ink also has a disadvantage - it dries out if not used for a long time. A significant disadvantage of such pens is their considerable cost in relation to other types of stationery pens, however, ease and softness of writing more than cover this shortcoming.

She has created unique pens with special ink that ensure maximum smoothness of writing at a low price of the pen (Uniball Jetstream 217), I recommend trying it out if you have the opportunity.

Few people know and even less pay attention to such a seemingly small item as a stationery pen. However, a properly selected handle eliminates slipping and unnecessary stress on the fingers, relieves stress on the arms, shoulders, and even reduces neck tension!

0. Don't go for cheap. I don't advocate buying expensive pens. In addition to premium-class pens, there are mid-price pens, I won’t indicate the boundaries, everyone has their own. I just want to say that when buying a cheap pen, there is a high probability of damaging documents, ruining objects around you (for example, staining them with leaked ink), and even your health; the pen can simply be toxic. Due to the low-quality materials from which it is made, it can last a day, or even a couple of hours, which will ultimately lead to new expenses.

1. The pen should be the right weight for you, it should not be very light, otherwise you will press hard on the paper and your fingers will quickly get tired. The same thing will happen to the fingers, and the hand as a whole, after a handle that has too much weight.

2. A well-chosen body shape is the key to long-lasting writing. Of course, all this is not for everyone, but I recommend a triangular section with a finger grip.

3. It will be great if the pen is equipped with a rubber or rubber grip for the fingers; this will soften the pressure of the body on the fingers and make the grip comfortable and soft, which again will allow you to write longer.

4. Beware of pens with a strong smell! There is a high probability that these are homemade Chinese products; such pens can be toxic.

5. I have read many times recommendations to buy pens only made in Russia or Europe. In defense of the “made in China” inscription, I will say that many European manufacturers have located their factories in China, where they produce not only pens, but also many other things under quality control. If you happen to have a pen of a famous brand in your hands, but with the inscription “made in China”, 99% that this pen was made in China, but under quality control and there is no point in worrying about the material and health. Many manufacturers care about their reputation and do not allow counterfeits of their brands to appear on the shelves.

Afterword

These are not all types of stationery pens; of course, no one has canceled fountain pens, rapidographs, capillary pens, or as they are also called liners/liners.

Links

• reviews of quality ballpoint and gel pens in

Materials used in the manufacture of handles.

The history of materials used to make fountain pens dates back to ancient times, when the properties of natural substances, such as horn, waxes and bitumens, were used by people for practical purposes. These materials were polymers, in which molecules (monomers) bond together and form chains during the setting and curing process. They are, in fact, plastics and, like all plastics, their main component is carbon.

People gradually learned that the properties of such materials could be improved by methods such as purification and modification with other substances, but it was not until the 19th century that many new industries began to need materials with properties that could not be found in nature. This stimulated the creation of a number of new materials, including the first plastics.

The metal has been widely used for centuries for a variety of purposes, including the making of feathers. Bronze feathers were found in the ruins of Pompeii.

Craftsmen also made handmade feathers, including many from precious metals, in accordance with the special requests of wealthy customers.

As machine technology and metallurgy advanced, a wide variety of materials were used in production, including brass, silver and gold. Parts of fountain pens, especially caps and bodies, were made from these materials. In many cases, base metal such as brass was plated with a thin layer of noble metal such as gold and silver. Technological processes originally involved rolling a layer of noble metal onto the surface of a base metal, but the electroplating technique has now replaced this process as it provides a more durable coating. In many cases, stainless steel has been successfully used to make durable, low-cost cases and covers that are well-liked by customers. Metals such as palladium and tritium have sometimes been used successfully in the manufacture of fountain pens. Back in 1970, lightweight but extremely hard titanium was difficult to process into fountain pens, but modern technology has made it much easier to use, and manufacturers now offer several varieties of titanium fountain pens.

The first fountain pens (in the 19th century) were made from hard carbon black-filled rubber. Their appearance was improved by applying various patterns on engraving machines. The most attractive, however, was the appearance of fountain pens when the hard rubber body was coated with precious metals - gold and silver. The coating was made in the form of filigree or complex patterns.

These magnificent early examples of fountain pens, decorated with metal ornaments, are now sought after by collectors all over the world.

Wooden fountain pens were made by several manufacturers using turning or even inlay. This became feasible primarily due to the wide selection of wood, its beauty and ease of practical use, as a result of which it became possible to choose certain types of wood for a variety of purposes.

However, the wood used for the production of fountain pens, even after cutting, drying and turning on a lathe, swells, dries out, warps or cracks, depending on climatic conditions. It is also porous, and the outer surface must be sealed to protect it from external influences and reduce moisture absorption. Examples of tree species used are Erica arborescens, maple, olive and the very rare snakewood.

Varnish is a general name for all types of coatings that form a hard, smooth and shiny surface. In the fountain pen industry, the same term means two completely different types of varnish - synthetic and Chinese.

The most commonly used coating is varnish, made from inert chemicals that are usually sprayed in several layers onto rotating brass bodies or covers. This coating is beautiful and durable. In addition, it offers an almost unlimited variety of surface finishes, such as marble, and makes it possible to produce beautiful, durable, yet inexpensive writing utensils.

More expensive coatings are made from Chinese, or oriental, varnish - of vegetable origin. To make varnish, resinous sap is used, collected from small trees that belong to the sumac family and grow mainly in China and Japan. Although the art of making lacquer products dates back centuries, and methods have changed over time, today the manufacture of Chinese lacquer coated fountain pens requires that same focused, internal discipline, treating the lacquer as an animate being that is difficult to “tame” and with which it is not easy. work. It also requires a thorough knowledge of the traditions of craftsmanship that originated 1000 years BC.

Fountain pens coated with Chinese varnish inspire admiration for their perfect surface gloss, richness of shades, excellent tactile properties, as well as unsurpassed resistance to the destructive effects of time and fire. Excellent examples of products coated with Chinese varnish are produced by the prestigious company S.T. Dupont, which prides itself on the fact that “if you throw one of our pens into a fire, nothing will happen to it.”

PLASTIC MATERIALS

The term "plastic" comes from the ancient Greek word "plasticos" (malleable). Therefore, plastics are materials that can be softened by heat and can be molded into desired shapes. Some plastics, like horn, are of natural origin, others, like nitrocellulose, are semi-synthetic, and are obtained by exposing natural substances to chemicals. Synthetic plastics are made from components of petroleum or natural gas.

All plastics are carbon-based and contain a number of molecules in the form of chains. There are two main categories of plastics - thermoplastics, which retain the ability to transition to a viscous-flow state with a change in shape, and thermosets, which take a constant specific shape depending on temperature and pressure.

FIRST PLASTICS

There are many early plastics. It has already been said that Chinese varnish is one of the very first plastics in the world. It was especially widely used during the reign of the imperial Han dynasty (starting from the 2nd century BC). The resinous sap obtained from the wood of the "sumac" (Rhus verniciflua), which grows mainly in China and Japan, is collected from cuts in the bark and filtered. In this case, care must be taken, because the resinous juice is poisonous and can cause severe burns. When exposed to air, in the presence of laccase (an enzyme that acts as a hardener), polymerization occurs, and the varnish dries and hardens, forming a shiny, durable and water-resistant coating.

AMBER is a natural thermoplastic, fossilized resin of fossil coniferous trees from the genus Pinus succinifer, which grew 40 - 60 million years ago. Amber is hard, light and warm to the touch; it is brightly colored and shiny. If you rub it, it can attract other objects to it. Amber is also credited with certain magical properties. The main methods of processing amber boil down to processes that require heating, clarification and pressing into tiles. The main area of ​​application of amber is the manufacture of beads of the same color and composition.

HORN can be heated and split, softened in boiling water, then leveled and given the desired shape using the hot pressing method. As a result, the horn behaves like a typical thermoplastic sheet material. By the early 19th century, the molded horn industry was thriving; Combs were mainly made from horn. Nowadays, several specialized companies produce fountain pens with bodies and caps made of horn. The most beautiful fountain pens made from horny substance are produced by the Japanese company Mannenhitsu Hakase; All handles are made by hand.

View TURTLE SHELL, commonly used in the production of fountain pens, are the horny large horny plates that cover the bony upper shield of the hawksbill turtle; they can be cut and pressed like horn, but always in such a way that the natural pattern is preserved. The beauty of tortoiseshell patterns encourages fountain pen makers to reproduce these colors and patterns on many lacquered writing utensils. Nowadays, synthetic varnish is mainly used for surface finishing.

SHELLAC is a natural resin of animal origin produced by tiny insects - lacquer bugs (Coccus lacca), which live on tropical and subtropical woody plants of certain species. Shellac is a thermoplastic, it was patented in the USA by Samuel Peck in the 50s. XIX century as a material for the manufacture of pressed products. Shellac can be mixed with fine wood chips and pressed into various shapes, such as photo frames. Compositions made from shellac were used until the 40s. for pressing gramophone records, and today shellac is used to make sealing wax. It is an important material used in the repair of fountain pens.

WOOD MASTIC. Sawdust mixed with albumin forms thermoset. The material was patented by Lepage in the 50s. XIX century. It is used mainly for making decorative plates, knife handles, dominoes, and jewelry.

GUTTA PERCHA- a plastic of natural origin, cut from the bark of a tree of the genus Palaquium, which grows in Malaya. Gutta-percha was used to make a wide variety of household and technical products, from jewelry and furniture to the insulation of undersea telegraph cables laid in 1850. Although the material is not very durable, it is still used today in the casings of footballs. golf.

SEMI-SYNTHETIC MATERIALS

In the 19th century, scientists discovered that natural substances reacted with various chemicals to form new semi-synthetic materials. The main ones used in the production of writing instruments are listed below.

RUBBER. Around 1838, Charles Goodyear, a failed American iron manufacturer, invented the process of vulcanizing rubber. At the same time as Goodyear, the Hancock brothers from England achieved the same success. Vulcanized rubber is called ebonite or vulcanizate. The process involves adding varying amounts of sulfur to natural rubber, which becomes harder and more elastic. Rubber is naturally dark in color, but if necessary, it can be colored with pigment to change the appearance.

By the end of the 19th century and until the beginning of the 20s. In the 20th century, most fountain pen manufacturers made them from vulcanized rubber. Two typical examples are the Jack-Knife fountain pens from Parker and the Ripple fountain pens from Waterman. The former were mostly black or black with a surface finish, the latter were made from stain-free vulcanized hard rubber and were two-tone, which looked very nice; the most popular of them were fountain pens with a variegated surface with red and white speckles.

CASEIN. The product was patented in Germany in 1899 under the name "galalite" (Greek for "milkstone"). The process of preparing casein involves adding rennet to separated, skimmed milk. The result is rennet casein. It is then dried, processed and dyed. Using extrusion technology, rods were made from the material and rolled into sheets. (Extrusion is a method in which a screw moves the raw material along a cylindrical body at high temperature and high pressure. The space in which the softened material can be moved by the screw is gradually reduced, and as a result the material becomes viscous. It is then forced through small holes in extrusion head at atmospheric pressure and ambient air temperature. As a result, the material expands and takes one or another shape depending on the configuration of the hole. It is cut into pieces of the required shape and size and, finally, dried).

After exiting the extruder, casein is cured by immersion in formaldehyde and then machined. Casein comes in a range of vibrant patterns and colors; it found use in a variety of industries, including button making. Parker used this material to make Ivorines fountain pens. But, unfortunately, casein is a porous substance, and over time it begins to shrink. This affected the appearance of Ivorines fountain pens: if, due to shrinkage of the barrel, the pipette was damaged and ink spilled, the casein became contaminated. In the 80s of the last century, Waterman used a similar material to make the Lady Elsa series fountain pens. These pens, which were refilled with replaceable ink cartridges, did not become dirty as easily, and in this sense they were better than the Ivorines pens.

PLASTICS BASED ON CELLULOSE DERIVATIVES. They are made by chemically modifying cellulose, a naturally occurring polymer that makes up approximately 1/3 of the entire phytomass of our planet. Cellulose can be made into thin film (cellophane), man-made fiber, or thermoplastic. There are many cellulose derivatives that play the most important role in the manufacture of fountain pens; among them are nitrocellulose, cellulose acetate, cellulose propionate and cellulose acetobutyrate. Their general physical properties include high abrasion resistance, high gas permeability, good electrical insulation properties, average water vapor permeability and good transparency.

NITROCELLULOSE. This substance is obtained by direct nitration of cellulose with nitric acid using various methods. Nitrocellulose can be transparent, opaque or colored. The product has quite satisfactory non-shrinkability, low water absorption and fairly high impact strength. It is, however, quite unstable to heat and direct sunlight. It can only be molded using a limited number of methods. It is also highly flammable.

Nitrocellulose is processed by mixing with a plasticizer, ethyl alcohol and other solvents to obtain a viscous plastic mass. This product is then compressed or extruded and aged to remove residual solvent. Typically the plasticizer is camphor, which is used in the production of celluloid. Celluloid is used to make many personal items, including combs and children's toys. Other brand names for celluloid are xylonite, parkesite, codalotide and pyramine (Du Pont).

British chemist Alexander Parker of Birmingham invented xylonite in 1855. By adding various oils to nitrocellulose, he created a paste that, when dried, looked like ivory or horn. The inventor called this substance “Parkesine” and made several products from it that were exhibited at the 1962 World Exhibition in London. Parker was awarded an honorary award for excellence in production.

In 1870, the Hiatt brothers patented their celluloid product, in which they used camphor rather than olive oil, as in parkin. In 1924, the Sheaffer company produced plastic fountain pens using a similar material, pyroxylin, giving it the trade name "radite." Two years later, Parker used this material to make Duofold fountain pens, giving it the brand name "permanite".

Raw pyroxylin takes a very long time to dry, from six months to several years. If the pyroxylin is not completely dry, the material may become deformed or even melt when machined as a result of the heat generated. Special devices for supplying cutting fluid during drilling and hot air drying help solve these problems. However, the plastic components of fountain pens sometimes shrink after production.

Nitrocellulose is extremely explosive and flammable. In the mid-20s. Several explosions occurred at the Wahl Eversharp factory in Chicago. The problems, however, were soon resolved, and by 1928 complex patterns were created, for example, a combination of mother-of-pearl and black. The pearlescent color was created by adding "pearl essence" to nitrocellulose. The essence was prepared from the chemical compound "guanine", which forms small, flat, shiny crystals on the scales of some types of fish. Later, lead phosphate(2) was used to finish the surface to resemble mother-of-pearl. For this purpose, two bars of two colors were crushed into particles of the required size, and these particles were melted by mixing them with a solvent and subjecting them to high pressure. The resulting black-pearl block could be heat-treated and dried before being made into caps and bodies for fountain pens.

The new plastics were not only attractive to look at, but also unbreakable, so the appeal of plastic fountain pens to the general public increased significantly, thereby stimulating sales. In the 30s Many fountain pen manufacturers, including Parker with its Vacumetric models, made plastic fountain pens with a transparent reservoir or with an annular transparent window, which made it possible to monitor the process of filling the pen with ink and its consumption. Vacumetric handle materials were made by compressing layers of clear and opaque nitrocellulose and cellulose esters into bars. Then the bars were painted and filled with filler. The end bars could be cut into thin layers to make parts for a fountain pen. The result was a pattern in the form of either a mosaic or a grid.

The striped material for the Vacumatic series fountain pens was made in exactly the same way, using translucent and opaque nitrocellulose, which was dyed and given pearl colors if desired. The material was cut into thin layers and pressed into bars, from which parts of fountain pens could then be made.

ACETYL CELLULOSE. As a result of the reaction of acetic acid and acetic anhydride with industrial cellulose, cellulose triacetate is formed. When this substance is hydrolyzed, cellulose acetate is formed. The use of a plasticizer reduces the softening temperature of cellulose, which makes it possible to process it without deteriorating its properties. By changing the dosage of plasticizer, the level of esterification and the length of the molecular chain of the original cellulose, a family of plastics can be obtained. They differ in softening temperature, hardness, strength and toughness.

CELLULOSE PROPIONATE AND CELLULOSE ACETOBUTYRATE. Both of these substances are formed by replacing acetic acid and acetic anhydride with corresponding acids and anhydrides. The esters are fused with a plasticizer under high temperature and high pressure conditions to produce homogeneous melts that are formed into rods and pellets. Cellulose propionate and cellulose acetobutyrate are also available in powder form. They are more expensive than cellulose acetate, but they have increased strength and are more stable, since they are characterized by lower water absorption. In addition to making writing utensils, cellulose propionate is often used to make blister packs (polymer thermoformed rigid film) and molded containers, car parts such as steering wheels, lighting fixtures and toys.

Firms now produce a wide range of colored plastics using nitrocellulose and cellulose acetate; These materials are usually used to make eyeglass frames, fashion accessories, etc. New technology makes it possible to produce these materials in thicker sheets, allowing fountain pen manufacturers to use them in the manufacture of writing utensils.

METALS

Pure metals are generally unsuitable for use in manufacturing processes due to their mechanical properties. On the other hand, metal alloys can be made to have properties that make them suitable. An alloy is a material with metallic properties that contains more than one component. Alloys can have complex compositions, and two alloys with the same chemical composition can have completely different properties if subjected to different types of heat treatments.

The alloys most often used in the production of fountain pens are based on brass, steel, nickel, silver and gold. Metals have a significant advantage over other materials used in fountain pens because the crystallographic structure of most commonly used alloys provides much-needed mechanical properties such as hardness, elasticity and ductility. This allows a wide variety of hot and cold working methods to be used to produce pen components that are easy to shape. In addition to versatility in use, metal alloys have a pleasant appearance. In addition, the use of coatings allows pen manufacturers to produce a wide range of durable and beautiful writing instruments to suit individual requirements.

Metal parts can be produced using a number of technological processes - rolling, forging, extrusion; relatively easy deformability makes metals particularly suitable for high-throughput, mass and high-precision processing. Special technological processes make it possible to obtain parts of a shape that is close to the specified one. Machining is typically used to make precious metal components, while injection molding is used primarily to make base metal parts. In addition, parts can be made from either the material alone or from the material with additional coatings, such as gold and silver plating, which improves corrosion resistance and improves appearance.

Metals have a wider range of properties than any other class of structural materials, such as polymers and wood. For example, hard steels have a tensile strength of over 250 t/sq.m. inch at room temperature. Melting temperatures can range from -39 degrees centigrade. for mercury up to 3410 gr.c for tungsten. Stainless alloys are resistant to most chemicals except the strongest acids, and gold, platinum and related metals will only be corroded by chemicals in exceptional circumstances. The ability of metal nibs to resist atmospheric corrosion as well as a wide variety of inks is extremely important to fountain pen manufacturers.

Below is a brief list of the metals that are commonly used to make fountain pens. In the most general form, they are divided into two categories: base and noble metals. Parts made from noble metals are corrosion resistant under normal operating conditions, but are particularly expensive.

BASE METALS

STAINLESS STEEL. The most common composition is 74% iron, 18% nickel and 8% chromium. It is used for the manufacture of most structural elements. This material is hard, quite plastic, and lends itself well to such types of processing as cold rolling, drawing, stamping and crimping. Stainless steel is highly resistant to atmospheric corrosion; you can process it to obtain an attractive-looking surface - matte, rough or polished to a mirror shine. You can also apply a thin electroplated nickel coating and top it with a bright chrome finish. Because of its rigidity and corrosion resistance, stainless steel is used to make barrels, caps, and nibs of fountain pens.

BRASS. The term "brass" refers to a broad family of alloys based on various variations of the copper-zinc system and often containing other metallic additives that give the alloys specific properties. The most common compositions are: 60% copper and 40% zinc; 63% copper and 37% zinc; 709% copper and 30% zinc. These compositions combine adequate mechanical properties, ease of manufacture and corrosion resistance.

Coating the surface of the above alloys with noble metals can be carried out using a rolling process. For example, if gold is used, karat gold sheets can be attached to a block of backing material (of the above composition) using a roller press under high temperature and high pressure conditions. The thickness and karat weight of the gold layer are adjusted depending on the technical requirements. For example, if the weight is required to be 1/10 of 12 karat, 12K gold is used and the plating thickness is adjusted so that the weight of the gold layer is 1/9 of the weight of the backing material.

The finished bar is rolled on a rolling mill to reduce its thickness. Intermediate annealing operations are performed at this stage to facilitate the coating hardening process. Finish rolling is performed on mirror-polished rollers. The thickness ratio of the gold coating and the substrate material remains unchanged during rolling operations.

TITANIUM. This metal is relatively light, with a specific weight of only 50% of that of brass or stainless steel, but it is extremely resistant to corrosion. The use of titanium was considered by several pen manufacturers, but they encountered production problems, mainly due to the hardness of titanium. It is believed that titanium pen parts can be made from extruded tubular blanks, and titanium alloys of varying composition have been tested. Parker's Titanium TI fountain pen was produced for only one year (1970) due to the difficulties associated with machining titanium. Nowadays, using more advanced technology, some manufacturers, including Aurora, Faber-Castell, Lamy, Montblanc and Omas, are producing fountain pens made entirely of titanium.

ALUMINUM. Pure aluminum is a soft metal that cannot withstand pressure and therefore easily deforms. Additionally, aluminum is not hard enough to withstand the rough handling that most writing utensils endure. However, it is used to make parts that are not subject to regular wear and tear. By alloying aluminum with other metals, a number of materials can be obtained that retain their common characteristics of lightness and durability, but also have other higher properties: increased tensile strength and hardness, as well as improved machinability.

NOBLE METALS

SILVER. Typically, silver alloys use 925 sterling silver, the rest are alloying elements: copper, nickel or zinc, which serve as strengthening elements. In the past, low sterling silver (800) was used, but this practice has been discontinued. In its pure form, silver is used only in cases where it is electroplated onto a metal substrate. Pure silver is widely used for plating metal substrates due to its excellent optical reflectivity, which gives the product an attractive appearance. Alloys of silver and palladium have been used to make feathers, but they are not complete substitutes for gold. Silver polishes very well, but may tarnish in atmospheres containing sulfur compounds.

Sterling silver is used to make solid silver parts, including cases and caps. An important characteristic feature of silver is that its surface can be engraved using the guilloche technique. Many manufacturers produce fountain pens made entirely of sterling silver. Such pens are not only more beautiful than silver-plated ones, but they will also increase in value over time.

GOLD. This oldest precious metal known to man is easily recognized by its characteristic yellow color and extremely high density. The softness of pure gold makes it unsuitable as a material for making jewelry. Gold can be made harder by adding alloying elements such as copper, nickel, silver or zinc. Changes in the concentration of individual metals in the master alloy affect the appearance and characteristics of gold. For example, the color of 18 karat gold ranges from light yellow to pink and red, depending on the alloying additives. All gold alloys are extremely resistant to water and atmospheric corrosion; That's why they hardly fade.

There are three main types of industrial alloys used in the manufacture of fountain pens:

9K gold (375 parts pure gold per 1000 parts alloy). This is the hardest gold alloy, and it is also the cheapest.

14K gold (585 parts pure gold per 1000). It is a medium-cost alloy that is used to a limited extent in most continental European countries, but is widely used in the UK and North America. Most gold nibs are made from 14K gold.

18K gold (750 parts per 1000). Although it is softer than both of the above alloys, it is still hard enough to be used in the manufacture of solid gold pens and nibs. European manufacturers make fountain pens and nibs from 14K gold for export, but in member countries of the European Union the predominant alloy is 18K gold.

White gold is an alloy in which the alloys are primarily silver and palladium, along with a few other minor additives. White gold is usually produced in the 18K variety, but is used very sparingly in industry.

GOLD COATINGS. Most manufacturers use the unique properties of gold, even if this noble metal is present only as a coating applied to the substrate metal. This coating can be applied using two different processes: first, using the rolling process described above, and second, using electroplating: the part is immersed in a special gold-containing solution through which an electric current is passed. Gold or a pre-prepared alloy with a high gold content is deposited on the surface of the part, which serves as an electrode. Gold alloys typically used for electroplating are 18K or 23.5K gold. Pen body parts can be plated using both methods, but holders are usually plated using electroplating.

OTHER NOBLE METALS. Of the noble metals used to make fountain pens, the group that includes platinum, rhodium, iridium, osmium and palladium share the same physical, mechanical and chemical properties. All of these metals are white in color, have a high melting point and are extremely resistant to corrosion.

In its pure form, platinum is soft, but hardens quickly with the addition of a small amount of alloying additives, and for the production of products it is used in the form of an alloy containing 950 parts per 1000. Since platinum is the most expensive of all noble metals used for making jewelry, in including feathers, it is used very sparingly. The metal is used to make the most prestigious feathers; in this case the pen becomes two-color. One of the best examples is the famous Montblanc Masterpiece 149 fountain pen nib. Several manufacturers, including Montblanc, make nibs from pure platinum, but these nibs are especially expensive.

Rhodium and palladium are used as electrolytic coatings. They are stronger than silver plating.

Of all the metals known today that have the highest density and hardness, osmium and palladium are mainly used to make balls, which are then welded onto the tip of a precious metal quill, cut along the cleavage line and ground. The strength of these metals makes the feathers extremely durable.

WOOD

There are about 70,000 different tree species known, of which about 400 are commercially available. These breeds are generally used in their country of origin, although some are exported to industrialized countries around the world.

The degree of hardness varies between tree species, and it is generally accepted that hardwoods produce harder wood than, for example, conifers. The color of wood mainly depends on the content of extractive substances, and the wood of some species turns pale in the light; while the wood of others, on the contrary, darkens, but most types of wood acquire richer colors when polished.

The natural pattern in cuts of wood is called grain; it is caused by the interaction of such natural factors as the presence of pigments, stripes and specks, the difference in density between the cells of early and late wood, the direction of wood fibers, and the pattern of arrangement of growth rings. There are eight main types of fiber direction in relation to the trunk axis, of which the most common are straight grain, in which the fibers are directed parallel to the trunk axis (maple, ebony) and confused curling, in which the fibers are randomly arranged (Erica arborescens).

The ability of wood cells to reflect light gives the polished surface shine, and dense wood with a fine structure shines brighter than wood with a coarse structure.

In order to determine the strength and durability of a wood species for a specific purpose, it is necessary to know what its mechanical properties are, including flexural strength, stiffness or modulus of elasticity, and impact strength (the ability to absorb energy when subjected to impact). Drying wood plays an extremely important role, because it determines the behavior of wood during use, and most types of wood are dried until the moisture content is reduced to 12% by weight. The specific gravity of wood is defined as the ratio of mass to volume; It is customary to compare the specific gravity of a substance with the specific gravity of water, which is 1.0. Thus, the specific gravity of any wood gives a clear idea of ​​its mass if the volume is known.

When choosing wood for making fountain pens, you should take into account not only the color and surface pattern, but also the deformability of the wood when using a fountain pen under different conditions of temperature and humidity. The surface should not crack. After seasoning, the wood is sawn into small pieces, which usually have a square cross-section. These bars are then processed on a lathe to give them the required shape and size. In many cases, metal or other inserts are placed in the body and cap of the pen. Because wood is porous, coating the surface is necessary not only to reduce the absorption of moisture (especially ink), but also to preserve the natural beauty of the wood.

Below is a short list of wood species most commonly used by leading fountain pen manufacturers.

Ebony (ebony). The wood is hard, the color is from dark brown to black, the grain arrangement is mostly straight-grained, the texture is fine, uniform in color and pattern. The wood is extremely heavy and dense (specific gravity 1.09). It is difficult to dry and difficult to process, but it polishes well. An excellent example of a fountain pen made from ebony is the OMAS 360 Wood.

Maple. The color of the wood ranges from cream to pinkish brown. The wood is usually straight-grained, the texture is fine, uniform in color and pattern. The specific gravity is 0.69. Maple wood dries slowly and has an average degree of deformability. A typical example of a fountain pen made from Japanese maple is the Pilot FK Balanced.

Olive. The color of this wood is from pale brown to brown, the grain arrangement is spiral. The wood has a fine texture, uniform in color and pattern. It is quite heavy (specific gravity 0.89), dries slowly, with a tendency to crack from shrinkage and split. Wood can be painted and polished, but deformation may occur when using a fountain pen. An excellent example of a fountain pen made from olive is the Waterman Man 100.

Snake tree. This is a South American tree from the genus Brosimum alicestrum; in the UK it is called letterwood, and in the US it is called leopard or pied. The color of the wood is red-brown with black patches or vertical stripes. The wood is very hard, durable and heavy (specific gravity 1.30). It is difficult to dry in air and has a tendency to warp. Although wood is difficult to work, it can be polished to a high shine to produce a very beautiful surface. The degree of deformability is average. A great example of a fountain pen made from snakewood is the OMAS 360 Wood.

Rosewood. The color of the core of the trunk ranges from solid bright red to a pattern of yellow, orange and red veins. The wood is hard and heavy (specific gravity 1.10). Dries very slowly, deformation is negligible. The wood is easy to paint and can be polished to produce a very beautiful surface. The Omas company produces round and faceted fountain pens from this wood.

Guaiacum. Guaiacum wood is one of the hardest and heaviest, with a specific gravity of 1.23. Color - from brownish-greenish to almost black. The wood is oily; degree of deformability - average. Wood can be polished to produce a very beautiful surface. The Omas fountain pen collection, made from exotic woods in 1995, contains a fountain pen made from this beautiful material.

Indian sandalwood. The color of the wood ranges from light yellow to golden brown and brick red. The wood has a characteristic odor. Its specific gravity is on average 0.66, depending on the country of origin. Wood dries rather slowly, but deforms very little. It can be painted and polishes beautifully. In the Omas collection of fountain pens, which began production in 1995, there is a copy made of sandalwood.

Erica tree-like. This wood is most often used to make fountain pens. It is extremely hard, heat and scratch resistant. Unlike the above-mentioned types of wood, which are found in the above-ground parts of trees, Erica tree wood, used to make fountain pens (and many other products), is found underground. Color ranges from white with a yellowish or grayish tint to shades of brown and purple. The wood dries very slowly, but stains well and polishes well. Waterman, Sailor, Platinum and Omas are among the manufacturers that make fountain pens from Erica arborescens.

Although most lacquered writing instruments are made using so-called synthetic varnish, there is a much more valuable perfect and even finish obtained from Chinese varnish. This varnish is a tree sap that has one feature: it hardens when it comes into contact with air and forms a perfectly smooth surface. The raw material is obtained from the sap of three species of trees growing in East Asia: the lacquer tree Rhus verniciflua (Japan), the successive sumac Rhus succedanea (China) and the lacquer tree Melossorreha lappifera (Kampuchea). When the lacquer tree reaches the age of 8 - 12 years, its sap is collected in jugs suspended under thin cuts in the bark. The properties of the varnish depend on climatic conditions and in particular on the monsoon period. If the sap is collected in years with heavy rainfall, the varnish will be elastic, but if the sap is collected during relatively dry periods, the varnish will be hard, even brittle. A soft varnish will not be strong enough for use in fountain pens, and the brittle material is not easily polished, and any impact will leave noticeable marks on its surface.

This is why it is very important to use methods that allow different varnishes to be mixed and ensure optimal viscosity. The two main components of varnish are resin, which gives elasticity, and urushiol, an active component that gives hardness to the varnish. Urushiol is a common generic name that also applies to cyciol and lakkol, depending on the type of tree from which the sap is obtained.

In order to create the best quality surface when making fountain pens, the varnish should be applied in several layers, under strictly controlled ambient air parameters - temperature and humidity, while each layer hardens. (Like wine, varnish is a living and unpredictable thing, and sometimes the mixture turns out wrong)

To overcome these difficulties, it is very important to know exactly the optimal conditions for each type of varnish. For example, varnish from East Asia dries only at relatively high air humidity (75 - 80%) and at a temperature of 25 - 30 degrees Celsius. Nowadays, firms such as S.T. Dupont have developed techniques for regulating temperature and humidity. (Not so long ago, working with varnish could cause an allergic reaction, but this problem was solved).

Asian varnish artists usually work with wood. There is a natural affinity between varnish and wood since they both belong to the same family of organic substances, but it is much more difficult to get varnish to bond to metal. The details of the process of preparing raw materials, as well as applying varnish, are usually shrouded in something of a mystery, because this process involves not only a deep knowledge of the ancient secrets of the craft, but also the constant search by the master varnisher for new varnish recipes and original finishing options.

SOURCES OF RAW MATERIALS AND PREPARATION OF VARNISH

The varnish used by S.T. Dupont is assembled in China, then, after primary processing in Japan, the varnish is sent in wooden barrels to France, where it is subject to quality control upon arrival. Using a brush made of the finest hair and attached to a strip of bamboo, the artist applies a little varnish to the glass plate. After two hours, he already knows exactly what the quality of the delivered varnish is.

The successive stages of varnish preparation have magical names: the “nayashi” process - the evaporation of moisture to obtain raw varnish, which is used in primers; the kurume process is the production of pure varnish used to fill pores and finish the surface.

The first mixture is prepared by hand using a spatula in a clay vessel, much in the same way as the most famous perfumes are made: the master does not know exactly the general formula, he just knows the exact quantities of several coating components that he must mix. These are the pigments that give the varnish its unique colors: “midnight sky blue”, “light tortoiseshell”, “Coromandel red”, etc.

The varnish is then filtered through a piece of gauze suspended on a wooden frame and two strings. Filtration is carried out by alternately twisting and unwinding the laces, so that the gauze is compressed. The filtered varnish flows very slowly, drop by drop, into a clay vessel, which is immediately sealed with greased wet paper. Every day, the varnish prepared the day before is filtered, and each vessel acquires its own pedigree in the form of a label, which indicates the mixing sequence number, weight and date. After this, the varnishes are ready to be sent to the workshop, where the air is conditioned and dust-free.

APPLYING VARNISH

Traditionally, varnish was applied exclusively with a brush. After hardening, each layer was polished by hand for a long time using various fine abrasives, such as charcoal. Some decorations, such as gold dust, should be applied with a spatula or brush, following the aventurine powder technique used in Japan in the late 19th century.

Although techniques have improved greatly since then, applying varnish to a fountain pen still requires a great deal of skill. The lid or body, made of brass, is placed on a rod that rotates over a metal plate. The craftsman must have great experience in adding the required amount of varnish, which he then distributes evenly over the entire surface of the fountain pen when the brass comes into contact with the plate. The layer thickness is about 70 microns (0.07 mm). The process is repeated several times and, depending on the desired pattern, up to six layers of varnish are applied.

As each layer of coating is applied, the varnish hardens as a result of natural polymerization (that is, a change in the chemical composition of the varnish: the molecules close together and form a strong three-dimensional structure). In order for the process to proceed normally, such parameters of the room microclimate as oxygen content in the air, temperature and humidity are regulated. Once the varnish layer has hardened, the finished product is polished extremely carefully.

There is a wide variety of finishes available, including solid colors, patterns using different colors and even exquisite designs with the addition of gold dust. Perhaps one of the most attractive patterns is the so-called “eggshell”. Company S.T. Dupont is probably the only fountain pen manufacturer in the West that has mastered this technique.

The varnish has a natural amber color and usually does not require the addition of white pigments. Tiny eggshell particles are placed by hand onto the first coat of varnish, then coated for the final finish. With subsequent polishing, the eggshell becomes visible again. This special method was invented in France in the 20s. Jean Dunand, the first famous French varnish master. His student George Novosilleff became the first varnish master to work at S.T. Dupont.

(The article uses materials from the book “Fountain Pens of the World” by Andreas Lambrou)