A story about ancient Rome. Titus Livy - the history of Rome from the founding of the city. Latins and Etruscans
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Early Roman history
The city was founded around settlements at a ford across the Tiber River, at the intersection of trade routes. According to archaeological evidence, Rome was founded as a village probably in the 9th century BC. e. two central Italian tribes, the Latins and the Sabines (Sabines), on the Palatine, Capitoline and Quirinale hills.
The Legend of Romulus and Remus
The fourteenth king of Alba Longa, Numitor, was overthrown by his brother Amulius. Amulius did not want Numitor’s children to interfere with his ambitious plans: Numitor’s son disappeared during a hunt, and Rhea Silvia was forced to become a vestal virgin. In the fourth year of service, the god Mars appeared to her in the sacred grove, from whom Rhea Silvia gave birth to two brothers. The enraged Amulius ordered the babies to be put in a basket and thrown into the Tiber River. However, the basket washed ashore at the foot of the Palatine Hill, where they were nursed by a she-wolf, and the mother’s cares were replaced by the arrival of a woodpecker and lapwing. Subsequently, all these animals became sacred to Rome. The brothers were then picked up by the royal shepherd Faustulus. His wife, Acca Larentia, who had not yet been consoled after the death of her child, took the twins into her care. When Romulus and Remus grew up, they returned to Alba Longa, where they learned the secret of their origin. They killed Amulius and restored their grandfather Numitor to the throne.
Four years later, at the behest of their grandfather, Romulus and Remus went to the Tiber to look for a place to found a new colony, Alba Longa. According to legend, Remus chose the lowland between the Palatine and Capitoline hills, but Romulus insisted on founding a city on the Palatine Hill. Appeal to signs did not help, a quarrel broke out, during which Romulus killed his brother. Repenting of the murder of Remus, Romulus founded a city, to which he gave his name (lat. Roma), and became its king. The founding date of the city is considered to be April 21, 753 BC. e. when the first furrow was drawn around the Palatine Hill by a plow. According to medieval legend, the city of Siena was founded by Remus's son, Senius.
Latins and Etruscans
From the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. e. Latin-Siculian tribes settled in the lower reaches of the Tiber, a branch of the Italics who came to the Apennine Peninsula from the Danube regions at the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. e. The Latins settled on the Palatine and Velia hills, and the Sabines occupied the neighboring hills. After the unification of several Latin and Sabine villages in the middle of the 8th century BC. e. on the Capitoline Hill a fortress common to all was built - Rome.
The Etruscans were ancient tribes that inhabited the first millennium BC. e. north-west of the Apennine peninsula (region - ancient Etruria, modern Tuscany) between the Arno and Tiber rivers and created a developed civilization that preceded the Roman one and had a great influence on it. Roman culture inherited many customs and traditions from the Etruscan culture. Around the 2nd century BC. e., due to assimilation by Rome, the Etruscan civilization ceased to exist.
Beginning of Rome
In order to increase the population of Rome in the early stages of its development, Romulus granted the newcomers the rights, freedoms and citizenship equal to the first settlers, for whom he set aside the lands of the Capitoline Hill. Thanks to this, fugitive slaves, exiles and simply adventurers from other cities and countries began to flock to the city.
Rome also lacked the female population - neighboring peoples rightly considered it shameful for themselves to enter into kinship alliances with a crowd of vagabonds, as they called the Romans at that time. Then Romulus came up with a solemn holiday - Consualia, with games, wrestling and various kinds of gymnastic and cavalry exercises. Many neighbors of the Romans, including the Sabines (Sabines), gathered for the holiday. At a moment when the spectators and, in particular, the spectators were captivated by the progress of the game, according to a conventional sign, a large crowd of Romans with swords and spears in their hands attacked the unarmed guests. In the confusion and crush, the Romans captured the women, Romulus himself took the Sabine Hersilia as his wife. Weddings with the ritual of bride kidnapping have since become a Roman custom.
Tsarist period
Seven kings
Tradition invariably speaks of seven Roman kings, always calling them by the same names and in the same order: Romulus, Numa Pompilius, Tullus Hostilius, Ancus Marcius, Tarquinius Priscus (the Ancient), Servius Tullius and Lucius Tarquinius the Proud.
Romulus
After the Romans abducted the Sabine women, war broke out between Rome and the Sabines. Led by their king Tatius, they set out for Rome. However, the abducted women managed to reconcile both warring parties, since they had already taken root in Rome. Then the Romans and Sabines made peace and lived under the rule of Romulus and Tatius. However, six years after the joint reign, Tatius was killed by the offended citizens of the colony of Cameria, where he was making a trip. Romulus became king of the united nations. He is credited with the creation of the Senate, which at that time consisted of 100 "fathers", the strengthening of the Palatine and the formation of the Roman community (the division of the Romans into patricians and plebeians).
Numa Pompilius
Servius Tullius
Republican Rome
Early Roman Republic (509-265 BC)
The struggle between patricians and plebeians
The early history of Rome was marked by the dominance of the family aristocracy, the patricians, except for whom no one could sit in the Senate. They were subordinated to the plebeians, who were, perhaps, descendants of the defeated people. However, it is possible that by origin the patricians were simply wealthy landowners who organized themselves into clans and appropriated the privileges of the upper caste. The power of the elected king was limited by the Senate and the assembly of clans, which granted the king after the election imperium(supreme power). Plebeians were not allowed to bear arms, their marriages were not recognized as legal - these measures were designed to leave them without protection, without the support of family and clan organization. Since Rome was the northernmost outpost of the Latin tribes, neighboring the Etruscan civilization, the Roman aristocratic formation resembled the Spartans special attention to patriotism, discipline, courage and military skill.
The overthrow of the monarchy did not lead to major changes in the political structure of Rome. The place of the king for life was taken by two consuls elected for one year from among the patricians. They led the meetings of the Senate and the People's Assembly, monitored the implementation of decisions made by these bodies, distributed citizens into centuries, monitored the collection of taxes, exercised judicial power, and commanded troops during the war. At the end of their term, they reported to the Senate and could be subject to prosecution. The assistants to the consuls in judicial matters were the quaestors, to whom management of the treasury later passed. People's Assembly was the highest state body, it approved laws, declared war, made peace, and elected all officials (magistrates). The role of the Senate increased: not a single law that was in force longer than the reign of the consuls who adopted it could come into force without its approval; he controlled the activities of magistrates, decided on foreign policy issues, and supervised finances and religious life.
The main content of the history of early republican Rome was the struggle of the plebeians for equality with the patricians, who monopolized the right to sit in the Senate, occupy the highest magistracy and receive land from the “public field.” The plebeians demanded the abolition of debt bondage and the limitation of debt interest. The growing military role of the plebeians (by the beginning of the 5th century BC they already constituted the bulk of the Roman army) allowed them to exert effective pressure on the patrician Senate. In 494 BC. e. after another refusal of the Senate to satisfy their demands, they left Rome for the Sacred Mountain (first secession), and the patricians had to make concessions: a new magistracy was established - the tribunes of the people, elected exclusively from the plebeians (initially two) and possessing sacred immunity; they had the right to interfere with the activities of other magistrates (intercession), impose a ban on any of their decisions (veto) and bring them to justice. In 457 BC e. the number of tribunes of the people increased to ten. In 452 BC e. The plebeians forced the Senate to create a commission of ten members (decemvirs) with consular power to write laws, primarily for the sake of fixing (that is, limiting) the powers of patrician magistrates. In 443 BC e. The consuls lost the right to distribute citizens among centuries, which was transferred to the new magistrates - two censors, elected from among the patricians every five years by the comitia centuriata for a period of 18 months. In 421 BC e. Plebeians received the right to hold the position of quaestor, although they realized it only in 409 BC. e. It was restored on the condition that one of them must be a plebeian, but the Senate achieved the transfer of judicial power from the consuls to the praetors, elected from the patricians. In 337 BC. e. The position of praetor also became available to the plebeians. In 300 BC. e. According to the law of the Ogulniy brothers, plebeians received access to the priestly colleges of pontiffs and augurs.
Thus, all magistracies were open to plebeians. Their struggle with the patricians ended in 287 BC. e. The victory of the plebeians led to change social structure Roman society: having achieved political equality, they ceased to be a class different from the class of patricians; noble plebeian families, together with the old patrician families, formed a new elite - nobility. This contributed to the weakening of the internal political struggle in Rome and the consolidation of Roman society, which allowed it to mobilize all its forces for active foreign policy expansion.
Rome's conquest of Italy
After the transformation of Rome into a republic, the territorial expansion of the Romans began. Initially, their main opponents were the Etruscans in the north, the Sabines in the northeast, the Aequians in the east, and the Volscians in the southeast.
In 509-506 BC. e. Rome repelled the advance of the Etruscans, who came out in support of the overthrown Tarquin the Proud, and in 499-493 BC. e. defeated the Arician Federation of Latin Cities (First Latin War), concluding an alliance with it on the terms of non-interference in each other’s internal affairs, mutual military assistance and equality in the division of spoils. This allowed the Romans to begin a series of wars with the Sabines, Volscians, Aequi and powerful southern Etruscan settlements.
The strengthening of the foreign policy positions of the Romans in Central Italy was interrupted by the invasion of the Gauls, who in 390 BC. e. defeated the Roman army at the Allia River, captured and burned Rome; The Romans took refuge in the Capitol. Although the Gauls soon abandoned the city, Roman influence in Latium weakened significantly; the alliance with the Latins actually disintegrated; the Volscians, Etruscans and Aequians resumed their war against Rome. However, the Romans managed to repel the onslaught of neighboring tribes. After a new Gallic invasion of Latium in 360 BC. e. the Roman-Latin alliance was revived (358 BC). By the middle of the 4th century BC. e. Rome already had complete control over Latium and Southern Etruria and continued expansion into other areas of Italy. In 343 BC e. the inhabitants of the Campanian city of Capua, having suffered defeat from the Samnites, transferred to Roman citizenship, which caused the First Samnite War (343-341 BC), which ended in a Roman victory and the subjugation of Western Campania.
The growth of the power of Rome led to a deterioration in its relations with the Latins, which provoked the Second Latin War (340-338 BC), as a result of which the Latin Union was dissolved, part of the lands of the Latins was confiscated, and a separate treaty was concluded with each community. Residents of a number of Latin cities received Roman citizenship; the rest were equal to the Romans only in property rights, but not in political rights. During the Second (327-304 BC) and Third (298-290 BC) Samnite Wars, the Romans defeated the Samnite Federation and defeated its allies - the Etruscans and Gauls. They were forced to enter into an unequal alliance with Rome and cede part of their territory to it. Rome strengthened its influence in Lucania and Etruria, established control over Picenum and Umbria and took possession of Senonian Gaul, becoming the hegemon of all of Central Italy.
Penetration of Rome into Southern Italy led to 280 BC e. to a war with Tarentum, the most powerful of the states of Magna Graecia, and its ally, the Epirus king Pyrrhus. In 276-275 BC. e. The Romans defeated Pyrrhus, which allowed them to 270 BC. e. to subjugate Lucania, Bruttium and all of Magna Graecia. Rome's conquest of Italy up to the borders with Gaul ended in 265 BC. e. capture of Volsinium in southern Etruria. The communities of Southern and Central Italy entered the Italic Union led by Rome.
Late Roman Republic (264-27 BC)
Rome becomes a world power
Rome's expansion into other Mediterranean territories made it inevitable that the Roman Republic would clash with Carthage, the leading power in the Mediterranean. As a result of three Punic wars between the two powers, Rome destroyed the Carthaginian state and incorporated its territory into the republic. This allowed him to continue expansion into other areas of the Mediterranean. After the conquests of the 3rd-1st centuries BC. e. Rome became a world power and the Mediterranean became a Roman inland sea.
First Punic War
The official cause of war for the Romans was the siege and capture of the Spanish city of Sagunta (an ally of Rome) by the Carthaginian commander Hannibal. After this, Rome declared war on Carthage. At first, the Carthaginian army led by Hannibal prevailed over the Roman troops. The most significant of the victories of the Carthaginians is the Battle of Cannae, after which Macedonia entered the war on the side of Carthage. However, the Romans were soon able to seize the initiative and went on the offensive. The last battle of the war was the Battle of Zama, after which Carthage sued for peace. According to the terms of the peace, Carthage paid 10,000 talents of indemnity, could not maintain more than 10 warships and conduct military operations without the permission of the Senate, and gave Spain to the Romans.
As a result of the war, Carthage lost all its possessions outside Africa. Rome became the strongest state in the West.
Third Macedonian War
In 171-168 BC. e. the Romans defeated the coalition of Macedonia, Epirus, Illyria and the Aetolian Union (Third Macedonian War) and destroyed the Kingdom of Macedon, creating in its place four independent districts that paid them tribute; Illyria was also divided into three Roman-dependent districts; The Aetolian Union ceased to exist.
As a result of another victory of Rome in the Third Macedonian War, he no longer needed the support of his former allies - Pergamum, Rhodes and the Achaean League. The Romans robbed Rhodes of its possessions in Asia Minor and dealt a blow to its trading power by declaring neighboring Delos a free port. Rome became the hegemon of the Eastern Mediterranean.
Third Punic War
During the Third Punic War (149-146 BC), Carthage was taken by the Roman army and destroyed to the ground. As a result, the Carthaginian state ceased to exist.
Gracchi brothers
In 133 BC e. tribune of the people Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus put forward a project for land reform, which was supposed to limit the limit of ownership ager publicus(public land) 500 jugers - 125 hectares. It was also allowed to increase the land allotment by 250 yugers for each son, but not more than by two sons. The rest of the land was confiscated and divided among landless citizens in plots of 30 yugers without the right to sell. After a bitter struggle, the law was passed and a commission was created to redistribute land. However, Tiberius was soon killed. A few years later, his younger brother Guy became the tribune of the people, proposing a series of bills. Soon, however, he was forced to commit suicide during the outbreak of unrest.
The end of the 2nd and the beginning of the 1st century BC. e.
An important issue at the beginning of the 1st century BC. e. The problem of the rights of the Italians arose - during the conquest of Italy by Rome, the conquered communities received various rights, which, as a rule, were limited in comparison with the Roman ones. At the same time, Italics served in the Roman army and were often used as “cannon fodder”. The inability to obtain rights equal to those of Roman citizens pushed the Italics into the Allied War.
Dictatorship of Sulla
Gaius Julius Caesar
Octavian Augustus and Mark Antony
After the death of Caesar, Octavian received control of Cisalpine and most of Transalpine Gaul. Mark Antony, who saw himself as Caesar's sole successor, began to openly compete with him for future power over Rome. However, a disdainful attitude towards Octavian, numerous intrigues, an attempt to take away Cisalpine Gaul from the previous procurator Brutus and the recruitment of troops for the war aroused hostility towards Antony among the people.
The Senate instructed the consuls of 43 Pansa and Hirtius to support Octavian. In mid-April, Antony defeated Pansa, but was later defeated by Hirtius. Together with Hirtius, Octavian inflicted a crushing defeat on Antony, and he was forced to flee. Soon Anthony managed to gather 23 legions, of which 17 and 10 thousand horsemen moved under his command to Italy. However, Octavian, who did not receive the desired recognition from the Senate, managed to come to an agreement with Antony during the negotiations. In 42 BC. e. Antony and Octavian completely defeated first Cassius and then Brutus in two battles. After his own campaigning in Greece, Anthony arrived in Asia, where he was going to raise money to pay soldiers' salaries and from Cilicia sent the Egyptian queen Cleopatra a proposal to conclude an alliance with the new triumvirs. However, Cleopatra appeared before him in person, and the seduced Anthony followed her to Alexandria, where he led an idle life for quite a long time. Rome was dissatisfied with Antony's pro-Egyptian policies. When Octavian, yielding to public pressure and at the same time pursuing his own goals, began to prepare for war, Antony divorced Octavia, but did not take energetic action, continuing his pleasure trip around Greece. Caesarion was soon proclaimed Caesar's successor at the insistence of Cleopatra, ending the alliance between the former triumvirs. Anthony was declared an enemy of the state, deprived of all positions and the future consulate. At the Battle of Actium, the combined forces of Antony and Cleopatra were defeated. Soon after this, Antony's remaining troops abandoned him. After the invasion in 31 BC. e. Octavian to Egypt, all of Antony's proposals for peace were rejected. When Octavian appeared at the gates of Alexandria, Antony and his cavalry detachment repelled the first attack. Having received false news that Cleopatra had committed suicide, Antony threw himself on his sword. Octavian Augustus became the first Roman emperor in the history of the entire state.
Fall of the Republic
The main reason for the fall of the republic was the contradiction between the political form of the republic of the 1st century BC. e. and its social and class content. The wide Mediterranean market, new groups of provincial slave owners, complex relationships between Italy and the provinces, between citizens and “non-citizens” urgently demanded new system management. It was impossible to govern a world power with methods and apparatus suitable for a small community on the Tiber.
The old classes, whose interests were reflected by the Roman Republic, by the end of the 1st century BC. e. disappeared or degraded. The Italian peasantry almost completely disappeared; nobility and equestrianism as a result civil wars a significant part of them died physically or went bankrupt. The nobility and equestrianism were replaced by new social groups: new rich people, lumpen proletariat, military colonists. They had nothing to do with the old republic. Their existence was closely connected with military empire, with the victorious commanders of the end of the republic.
The professional army, which grew out of civil wars, was the direct support of these commanders and the main instrument of the military coup.
The fall of the republic was inevitable. Octavian won because Italy stood behind him and he could use the unified apparatus of the Roman state. He was more cunning, more careful, more self-possessed than Anthony, he was the adopted son of Caesar. Octavian finally won because his political will was united and purposeful, because around him there was not that struggle between two parties, Roman and Eastern, the party of Roman emigrants and the party of Cleopatra, which weakened and paralyzed the will of Anthony.
Imperial Rome
Article The Roman Empire contains general material from the imperial period of Rome
Early Roman Empire. Principate (27/30 BC - 235 AD)
Reign of Augustus (31 BC - 14 AD)
The basis of Octavian's powers were the tribunate and the highest military authority. In 29 BC. e. he received the honorary nickname "Augustus" ("Exalted") and was proclaimed princeps (first person) of the Senate; hence the name of the new one political system- principate. In 28 BC. e. the Romans defeated the tribe mezov and organized the province of Moesia. In Thrace, meanwhile, a fierce struggle unfolded between supporters and opponents of the Roman orientation, which postponed the final conquest of Thrace by the Romans for several years. In 24 BC e. The Senate freed Augustus from any restrictions imposed by law in 13 BC. e. his decisions were equated to Senate resolutions. At 12 BC e. he became the great pontiff, and in 2 BC. e. was awarded the title of “Father of the Fatherland.” Having received in 29 BC. e. censorship powers, Augustus expelled the Republicans and supporters of Antony from the Senate and reduced its composition.
Augustus carried out military reform, completing the century-long process of creating a Roman professional army. Now the soldiers served for 20-25 years, receiving a regular salary and constantly being in a military camp without the right to start a family. Upon retirement, they were given a monetary reward and given a plot of land. The principle of voluntary recruitment of citizens into legions and provincials into auxiliary units, guard units were created to protect Italy, Rome and the emperor - guardsmen (praetorians). For the first time in Roman history, special police units were organized - cohorts of vigils (guards) and city cohorts.
Yulio-Claudian Dynasty
Tiberius
Tiberius Claudius Nero (14-37 AD) was the second Roman emperor, adopted son and successor of Octavian Augustus, founder of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. He became famous as a successful military leader, but his reputation as an arrogant and dissolute man is most likely unfounded.
Together with his younger brother Drusus, Tiberius was able to expand the borders of the Roman Empire along the Danube and into Germany (16-7 BC, 4-9 AD).
To save money public funds the emperor reduced cash distributions and the number of spectacles. Tiberius continued the fight against the abuses of provincial governors, completely eliminated the taxation system and switched to direct tax collection.
Caligula
Caligula ( Full name Gaius Caesar Augustus Germanicus) (37-41 AD) - third Roman emperor, great-nephew of Tiberius. Caligula tried to establish an unlimited monarchy, introduced a magnificent court ceremony and demanded that his subjects call him “lord” and “god,” and the imperial cult was implanted everywhere. He pursued a policy of open humiliation of the Senate and terror against the aristocracy and horsemen. Caligula's support was the praetorians and the army, as well as the urban plebs, to attract whose sympathy he spent huge amounts of money on distributions, spectacles and construction. The depleted treasury was replenished by confiscation of the property of convicts. Caligula's regime caused general discontent, and in January 41 he was killed as a result of a conspiracy by the Praetorian elite.
Claudius I
Claudius (41-54 AD) is the fourth emperor, uncle of Emperor Caligula. After the murder of his nephew, he was found by a soldier of the Praetorian Guard, brought to the camp and, against his will, proclaimed emperor. Having established himself in power, he executed the organizers of the murder of Caligula, repealed many odious laws, and granted amnesty to those illegally convicted. Since childhood, he had poor health and was considered weak-minded, although some historians argue that he was a very wise and atypical moral politician for that time, therefore he was not understood by his contemporaries and was nicknamed weak-minded. During the reign of Claudius, the policy of Romanization and the gradual granting of civil rights to the conquered population continued, a new water supply system and the port of Portus were built, and Lake Fuscinus was drained.
Nero
The result of the reign of the Julio-Claudian dynasty
In foreign policy The Julio-Claudians converted the following conquered kingdoms into Roman provinces:
Here you can read online Titus Livius - The History of Rome from the Foundation of the City - an introductory passage. Genre: Ancient literature. Here you can read an introductory excerpt from the book online without registration and SMS on the website website (LibKing) or read summary, preface (abstract), description and read reviews (comments) about the work.
Titus Livius - History of Rome from the foundation of the City summary
History of Rome from the founding of the City - description and summary, author Titus Livius, read for free online on the website electronic library website
Titus Livius (Titus Livius, 59 BC, Patavius, now Padua - 17 AD, ibid.) is one of the most famous Roman historians, the author of the most often cited “History from the Foundation of the City” (“Ab urbe condita” "), unpreserved historical and philosophical dialogues and a rhetorical work in epistolary form to his son.
The founder of the so-called alternative history, describing the possible struggle of Rome with Alexander the Great if the latter had lived longer. Livy named Demosthenes and Cicero as examples of perfect style.
Livy came from a wealthy family; in his early youth he came to Rome, where he received a good education, after which he took up philosophy, history and rhetoric. Although he had a close relationship with Augustus, Livy did not take an active part in political life. After 27 BC e. Livy began working on a fundamental work on the history of Rome in 142 books, in which he believed in moral values and in which he saw the guarantee of the revival of Rome and at the same time, sharing the views of the Stoics, believed in fate. The surviving books contain about 40 speeches by historical and semi-legendary figures. Chronologically, the Libyan style represents an intermediate stage between the classical and the so-called Latin of the Silver Age of the Empire. Both Senecas, Quintillian and Tacitus spoke of Livy with respect, and Valerius Maximus, Annaeus Florus, Lucan and Silius Italicus used his works.
Nicolo Machiavelli wrote Discourses on the First Decade of Titus Livius.
The only surviving work of Titus Livy, “The History of Rome from the Founding of the City,” covers the events of Roman history from its legendary origins to civil wars and the establishment of the empire, i.e., the era of which the author was a contemporary.
Of the 142 books, 35 books have survived to our time - from the first to the tenth and from the twenty-first to the forty-fifth, covering events up to 293 and from 219 to 167 BC. e. A well-known idea about the contents of other books is given by their brief summaries created in ancient times - “periokhs”, or “epithomes”. Their translation is also included in this edition.
This publication was prepared by a team of translators - classical philologists and historians of antiquity.
Contains an extensive explanatory article by G. S. Knabe.
History of Rome from the foundation of the City - read online for free introductory passage
TITUS LIVIUS
HISTORY OF ROME FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CITY
Books I-X: The text is based on the edition: Titus Livius. History of Rome from the founding of the city. Volume I. Publishing house "Science" M., 1989. Translation by V.M. Smirina. Comment by N.E. Bodanskaya. Translation editors – M.L. Gasparov and G.S. Knabe. Comment editor – V.M. Smirin. Executive editor – E.S. Golubtsova.
The following publications were used for translation: Titi Livi ab urbe condita libri, rec. W. Weissenborn, Lipsiae, 1871-1878, I-II; Titi Livi ab urbe condita libri, editio akera, quam curavit M. Müller, Lipsiae, I-II, 1905-1906; Livy with an English translation by B.O. Foster. London, Cambridge Mass., 1920-1940; vol. I-IV.
The translators set themselves the task of reproducing the general appearance of Livy’s work as a literary work, without which it is impossible to reveal Livy’s attitude to history itself, to the material with which he worked.
The commentary does not claim to be complete. Its main purpose is to help the reader understand Livy’s text (this required real references, explanations along the way, and references to other chapters), as well as to place Livy’s work in a general context, both historiographical and historical-cultural. References to other ancient authors (selected) are given according to generally accepted categories. When referring to Cicero's treatises, only the book and paragraph are indicated; when referring to speeches, only the paragraph is indicated. Dates appearing in the text in square brackets, indicating years BC, were added by the editors according to the marginalia of the edition of B.O. Foster. Commentary compiled by N.E. Bodanskaya (books I-V) and G.P. Chistyakov (books VI-X).
Books XX – XLV: The text is given according to the publication: Publishing House “Nauka” M., 1991. Translation by F.F. Zelinsky. Comment by V.M. Smirina, G.P. Chistyakova. Translation and commentary editor – V.M. Smirin. Executive editor – E.S. Golubtsova.
Volume 2 of “History of Rome...” by Titus Livy includes the book. XXI-XXX (the so-called third decade), dedicated to the history of the Second Punic War. Text of the book. XI-XX has not survived.
For translation and preparation for printing, the following publications were used: Titi Livi ab urbe condita libri / Ed. W. Weissenborn, M. Müller. Lipsiae, II-III, 1905-1906; Livy with an English translation. London; Cambridge (Mass.). Vol. V.Transl. by B.O. Foster. 1929; Vol. VI-VIII. Transl. by F.G. Moore. 1940-1949 as well; Titi Livi ab urbe condita, XXI-XXV / Rec. T.A. Dorey. Lipsiae, 1971-1976. Translation of the book. XXI, made by F.F. Zelinsky, published by: Historians of Rome / Translated, ed. S. Markish. M., 1970.
References to other ancient authors (selected) are given according to generally accepted categories. When referring to Cicero's treatises, only the book and paragraph are indicated; when referring to speeches, only the paragraph is indicated. When referring to Flora, both existing categories are taken into account: divided into two books (taken as the main one) and divided into four books (in brackets). In the first volume, all references to Flora were given only to the second of them (in the Russian translation by A.I. Nemirovsky and M.F. Dashkova, both are taken into account). When referring to Strabo's Geography, only the book and page of the first printed edition are indicated; this system of links is much more convenient when using the Russian translation by G.A. Stratanovsky (M., 1964), where the numbers of these pages are written in the margins. Dates appearing in the text in square brackets, indicating years BC, were added by the editors according to the marginalia of the edition of B.O. Foster - F.G. Moore.
Periods of books 1-142
[translation by M.L. Gasparova]
[translation by V.M. Smirina]
[translation by N.A. Pozdnyakova]
[translation by G.Ch. Guseinova]
[translation by G.Ch. Guseinova]
[translation by S.A. Ivanova]
[translation by N.N. Kazansky]
[translation by N.V. Braginskaya]
[translation by N.V. Braginskaya]
[translation by N.V. Braginskaya]
[translation by N.V. Braginskaya]
[translation by F.F. Zelinsky]
[translation by M.E. Sergeenko]
Book XXIII
[translation by M.E. Sergeenko]
[translation by M.E. Sergeenko]
[translation by M.E. Sergeenko]
[translation by M.E. Sergeenko]
Book XXVII
[translation by M.E. Sergeenko]
Book XXVIII
[translation by M.E. Sergeenko]
[translation by M.E. Sergeenko]
[translation by M.E. Sergeenko]
[translation by G.S. Knabe]
Book XXXII
[translation by S.A. Ivanova]
Book XXXIII
[translation by S.A. Ivanova]
Book XXXIV
[translation by G.S. Knabe]
[translation by S.A. Ivanova]
Book XXXVI
[translation by S.A. Ivanova]
Book XXXVII
[translation by S.A. Ivanova]
Book XXXVIII
[translation by A.I. Solopova]
Book XXXIX
[translation by E.G. Youngster]
[translation by I.I. Makhankova]
[translation by V.N. Chamberdzhi]
[translation by M.P. Fedorova, I.F. Makarenkova]
Book XLIII
[translation by N.P. Grintsera, T.I. Davydova, M.M. Sokolskaya]
[translation by O.L. Levinskaya]
[translation by O.L. Levinskaya]
Fragment of Book XCI
[translation by A.V. Korolenkova]
From the editor
Titus Livy (59 BC - 17 AD) belongs to that brilliant galaxy of writers and poets, thinkers and historians who are usually attributed to the so-called golden age of ancient Roman literature. Livy was a younger contemporary of Cicero, Sallust and Virgil, an older contemporary of Ovid and Propertius, almost the same age as Horace and Tibullus. The works of all these authors have been published in our country in recent years, partly in new translations, partly in old ones that have stood the test of time. This publication, for the first time presenting in Russian the surviving literary heritage of Livy in such a complete form, with an extensive explanatory article and scientific comments, is intended to fill the existing gap.
Livy wrote dialogues of socio-philosophical content, treatises on rhetoric, but all of them were irretrievably lost, and his world fame is based on a single work, which has not been completely preserved and which, according to tradition, is usually called “The History of Rome from the Foundation of the City.” It is his Russian translation that forms the content of the three volumes now offered to the reader. In its original form, this work covered the events of Roman history from its legendary origins to civil wars and the establishment of the empire, that is, the era of which the author was a contemporary. Of the 142 books that made up the grandiose epic, 35 books have survived to our time - from the first to the tenth and from the twenty-first to the forty-fifth, covering events up to 293 and from 219 to 167 BC. A well-known idea of the contents of other books is given by their brief summaries created in ancient times - “periokhs”, or “epithomes”. Their translation is also included in this edition (see Vol. III).
Livy's work was rated as one of higher manifestations Roman spiritual culture already by his contemporaries - enthusiastic reviews of him stretch throughout the entire era of the early Roman Empire. Modern times, from Dante and Machiavelli to the Russian Decembrists, saw him as one of the greatest historians of antiquity. The historical assessment and significance of Libya today are based on three points.
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The most important dates for the beginning of Roman history
753 BC - legendary date of the founding of Rome
I - Royal period (753-509 BC)
II - Republican period (509-27 BC)
III - Imperial period (begins with Julius Caesar, who called himself the first Roman emperor) lasts until the end of the reign of Romulus Augustulus (476).
The ancient history of Rome - about its foundation, the reign of seven kings, their affairs and institutions - is in many ways legendary. Ancient legends about the first centuries of Rome are a mixture of reliable events with poetic fiction.
First of all, the story of the resettlement of the Trojan hero Aeneas to Latium seems legendary.
Without a doubt, the basis for it was the lively trade relations maintained by the Romans with the Greek colonial cities in Lower Italy.
According to ancient legends, Aeneas founded the city of Lavinium, and his son Ascanius Yul founded the city of Alba Longa.
In this Alba Longa, a city in the region of Latium, about 754 BC. Two brothers from the Ascania family ruled together: Numitor and Amulius.
But Amulius wanted to reign alone and ousted Numitor. For greater safety, he killed his son Numitor, and made his daughter a vestal - a priestess of the goddess of the hearth and home, Vesta. The Vestals were supposed to remain virgins.
But Numitor’s daughter Rhea Sylvia broke the vow she had taken and gave birth to two children from the god Mars.
Immediately after their birth, the cruel uncle ordered the boys to be put in a trough and thrown into the Tiber. The mother was imprisoned.
But the trough caught on a fig tree, and when the rising waters of the Tiber again entered their banks, the children remained on solid ground and were suckled by a she-wolf
Soon the royal shepherd Faustulus found them and took them to his wife Laurentia, who had just given birth to a stillborn son. Faustulus raised the found children, named them Romulus and Remus, and made them shepherds. Both boys showed physical and mental abilities from an early age. They tended the royal flocks and hunted in the mountains on which Rome was later built. They lived in huts that they built themselves from wood and reeds. One of these huts was preserved and maintained as a shrine even during the time of the historian Dionysius (about 30 BC).
When Romulus and Remus reached the age of eighteen, one random incident completely changed their social position. One day they quarreled over pasture land with the shepherds of Numitor, who lived in Alba Longa, despite his displacement.
Romulus and Remus beat their opponents, and they decided to take revenge on them. During one holiday, they waylaid the brothers, captured Rem and brought him to the king. Amulius sent Remus to Numitor so that he could punish him at his discretion. From his decisive manners and bold manner Numitor realized that this shepherd was of high birth. The similarity of the face led him to the right trail, and he guessed that Rem was his grandson.
Meanwhile, Faustulus revealed to Romulus the secret of his true birth, and when Romulus came for his brother to Numitor, the real state of affairs was finally clarified. The brothers decided to take revenge for the injustice committed against their grandfather and themselves. They aroused unrest among the population and, reinforced by a crowd of dissatisfied people, attacked the king, killed him and placed their grandfather Numitor on the throne.
In return for this service, they were allowed to found a settlement on the very spot where they had been abandoned and rescued. They were joined by their supporters, the surrounding shepherds. But soon a dispute arose between the brothers over who should have the honor of being called the founder of the city. They left the decision to the gods. To do this, Romulus and Remus each sat down in a certain place and began to wait for a favorable sign.
Remus was the first to see a happy sign in the form of six kites flying past him, but then twelve of them flew past Romulus. Since the decision of the gods was ambiguous, and each side interpreted it in its own favor, a quarrel occurred between the brothers and their supporters, in which Remus was killed, and Romulus remained the winner.
Then Romulus began to build a new city with the observance of various sacred rites.
He harnessed a white bull and a white cow to a plow and drew a circular furrow with the plow, which was supposed to mark the circumference of the new city and the line of its future walls.
In the place where the gate should be, the plow was raised, since this entrance and exit was not sacred. At first, the entire city was occupied only by the Palatine Hill.
Soon the first signs of that warlike character appeared, thanks to which the small settlement of Rome became the center of everything known in ancient times. War, victory and the resulting fear were the first bonds with which Romulus united the new state with its closest neighbors. On Capitol Hill, under the auspices of religion, a refuge was built for those deprived of their fatherland and fugitives of all kinds. The existence in Italy of many small states, the frequent discord of parties in them, the oppression and want that reign in many of these states, impoverished due to the severity government debts, and other similar circumstances gave hope for a large influx of immigrants.
It goes without saying that they brought with them hatred of their former fellow citizens and knowledge of the states from which they came. These two qualities turned out to be just right for the warlike spirit of Romulus and his plans of conquest, but at the same time they were supposed to make Rome hated by neighboring states. The famous kidnapping of the Sabine women was an act that further aroused the hatred of the neighbors.
When the Sabines refused to marry their daughters to the Romans, they resorted to the following trick. Romulus announced that on a certain day festive celebrations would take place in Rome in honor of the god of the harvest Consus and invited residents of nearby cities to them. Many men, women and children came at the invitation, and everyone was having fun at the festival.
On the last day of the celebrations, a treacherous plan was revealed. At a time when everyone's attention was drawn to the spectacle, at this signal the Roman youths rushed to kidnap the girls. The spectators who came, shocked by such a violent attack, fled, cursing the treachery of the Romans.
Romulus tried to calm the kidnapped people and solemnly married them all to the young Romans.
The offended Sabines decided to take revenge.
Only war represented the desired satisfaction and gave hope of destroying the city threatening dangers. But the attack was carried out too hastily, without cooperation, and therefore the goal was not achieved.
The inhabitants of Tsenina were the first to attack and were defeated, and their king Akro was personally killed by Romulus. At the head of his victorious army, carrying the armor of the murdered king, Romulus triumphantly rode into Rome in a chariot drawn by four horses. He piled up the enemy armor near the sacred oak tree and immediately determined a place for the temple of Jupiter. This is the origin of the most ancient Roman temple - the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill.
Then the inhabitants of the cities of Crustumerium and Antemna rose up against the Romans, but were also defeated by Romulus.
The rule established by Romulus was first applied to these cities, which from then on was observed in subsequent times and, undoubtedly, contributed to the spread of the power of Rome and the establishment of its dominion. Instead of destroying the conquered city and turning its inhabitants into slavery, which was the custom in Greece and other peoples of the ancient world, some of the inhabitants were resettled in Rome, and the Romans were sent in their place. They received part of the land property in the conquered cities and thus contributed to the formation of Roman colonies.
Finally, the Sabines also opposed the Romans, gathering a large army under the leadership of King Titus Tatius. They reached the Quirinal Hill, which was located opposite the Roman fortress on the Capitol. The betrayal of the daughter of the commander of the fortress gave her into the hands of enemies.
The next day, a hot battle broke out on the plain between the Capitoline and Palatine hills. It continued until the kidnapped Sabine women, with flowing hair and torn clothes, rushed into the ranks of the fighters and begged to stop the battle. Their prayers achieved their goal. Negotiations began on both sides, and peace was finally concluded on the following terms. Tatius and Romulus were to enjoy equal power and honor in Rome. The city was to be called Rome, and its citizens - Romans; the united people named after the homeland of Tatius, the city of Kura, received the name Quirites (in later times, peaceful citizens were called Quirites, as opposed to warriors). All Sabines received Roman citizenship.
Romulus had his seat on the Palatine Hill, and Tatius on the Capitoline. Although they ruled together and by mutual agreement, there was no true, internal unanimity either between themselves or between their peoples. In the fifth year of joint reign, during a sacrifice in Lavinium, Tatius was killed by a citizen of the city of Laurenta, who had insulted him, and, moreover, not without the secret participation of Romulus in this matter. This is all the more likely since Romulus, who did not want to tolerate even his brother with him, undoubtedly had to strive to remove the foreign accomplice of his power.
Before talking about the end of the reign and death of Romulus, we should mention some of the internal institutions attributed to him, which served as the basis for subsequent government system Rome. In this regard, the most important thing seems to be the division of the entire Roman population into three parts - tribes. It was based not on the arbitrariness of the king, but on the differences in the origins of the inhabitants of Rome.
These three tribes, or rather peoples, were the Latins, the Sabines and the Etruscans.
Each of these tribes received its share of the land, which was also divided into three parts for this purpose. Moreover, each of them also had its own special district in the city of Rome itself. Each tribe was divided into ten curiae. These ten curiae were linked by common worship and participation in government.
Each curia, in turn, was divided into ten clans. The members of all thirty curiae were called patricians, that is, “those who had fathers”; they were full citizens. The formation of the plebs - a powerless mass of people next to the full-fledged class of patricians - was mentioned for the first time only during the time of King Ancus Marcius. In addition to the curiae, in management state affairs The Senate, which consisted of one hundred patricians, took an important part; subsequently the number of senators increased to three hundred.
The patricians, seeking freedom and autocracy, entered into a struggle with the autocratic power of the victorious king and looked for an opportunity to get rid of him. Romulus suddenly disappeared, according to some legends, while he was present at a meeting of the Senate in the temple of Vulcan, according to others, when one day he was making a general review of the entire army on a field outside the city.
During this review, a solar eclipse suddenly occurred and a storm broke out; the people fled and left the king alone with the patricians. Then he must have been killed by the patricians, and they told the people that Romulus had been carried away from the earth by the gods. The people began to doubt and express suspicion and anger against the Senate. But a certain Julius Proculus, a respected man and a faithful friend of Romulus, appeared to the assembled people and solemnly assured that Romulus appeared to him on the road in brilliant armor and in an enlarged form.
The frightened Proculus turned to him with the words: “King! Why are you, with your sudden disappearance, leaving us to undeserved accusations and plunging the city into hopeless sadness? To this, Romulus allegedly answered him: “This happened according to the will of the gods. You can tell the Romans that with courage and prudence they will achieve great power; I will be their guardian genius in the form of Quirin.” The people ceased to doubt the authenticity of what the patricians told and, overwhelmed by sacred delight, decided to honor Romulus in the form of the god Quirinus and built an altar for him on the Quirinal Hill.
The Great Roman Empire is rightfully considered one of the greatest civilizations of the Ancient World. Before its heyday and for a long time after its collapse, the Western world did not know a more powerful state than Ancient Rome. In a short period of time, this power was able to conquer vast territories, and its culture continues to influence humanity to this day.
History of Ancient Rome
The history of one of the most influential states of Antiquity began with small settlements located on the hills along the banks of the Tiber. In 753 BC. e. these settlements united into a city called Rome. It was founded on seven hills, in a swampy area, at the very epicenter of constantly conflicting peoples - the Latins, the Etruscans and the ancient Greeks. From this date, chronology began in Ancient Rome.
According to ancient legend, the founders of Rome were two brothers - Romulus and Remus, who were the children of the god Mars and the vestal virgin Remi Silvia. Finding themselves at the center of a conspiracy, they were on the brink of death. The brothers were saved from certain death by a she-wolf who fed them with her milk. Having grown up, they founded a beautiful city, which was named after one of the brothers.
Rice. 1. Romulus and Remus.
Over time, simple farmers turned into well-trained warriors who managed to conquer not only all of Italy, but also many neighboring countries. The management system, language, achievements of culture and art of Rome spread far beyond its borders. The decline of the Roman Empire occurred in 476 BC.
Periodization of the history of Ancient Rome
The formation and development of the Eternal City is usually divided into three most important periods:
- Tsarsky . The oldest period of Rome, when the local population consisted mostly of fugitive criminals. With the development of crafts and the formation of the state system, Rome began to develop at a rapid pace. During this period, power in the city belonged to the kings, the first of whom was Romulus, and the last - Lucius Tarquinius. Rulers did not receive power by inheritance, but were appointed by the Senate. When manipulation and bribery began to be used to obtain the coveted throne, the Senate decided to change political system in Rome and proclaimed a republic.
Slavery was widespread in ancient Greek society. The greatest privileges were enjoyed by the slaves who served the masters in the house. It was most difficult for slaves, whose former activities involved grueling work in the fields and mining of mineral deposits.
- Republican . During this period, all power belonged to the Senate. The borders of Ancient Rome began to expand due to the conquest and annexation of the lands of Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Corsica, Macedonia, and the Mediterranean. The Republic was headed by representatives of the nobility, who were elected at the people's assembly.
- The Roman Empire . Power still belonged to the Senate, but a single ruler appeared on the political arena - the Emperor. At that period of time, Ancient Rome expanded its territories so much that it became more and more difficult to manage empires. Over time, the power split into the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern, which was later renamed Byzantium.
Urban planning and architecture
The construction of cities in Ancient Rome was approached with great responsibility. Every major settlement was built in such a way that two roads perpendicular to each other intersected in its center. At their intersection was located central square, market and all the most important buildings.
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Engineering thought reached its highest peak in Ancient Rome. A subject of particular pride for local architects were aqueducts - water conduits through which a large volume of clean water flowed into the city every day.
Rice. 2. Aqueduct in Ancient Rome.
One of the oldest temples of Ancient Rome was the Capitol, built on one of the seven hills. The Capitoline Temple was not only the center of religion, it had great importance in strengthening the state and served as a symbol of the strength, power and might of Rome.
Numerous canals, fountains, an excellent sewage system, a network of public baths (thermal baths) with cold and hot pools made life much easier for city residents.
Ancient Rome became famous for its roads, which provided troops and postal services with rapid movement and contributed to developed trade. Their construction was carried out by slaves who dug deep trenches and then filled them with gravel and stone. Roman roads were so good that they were able to safely survive more than one hundred years.
Culture of Ancient Rome
Works worthy of a true Roman were philosophy, politics, agriculture, war, civil law. The early culture of Ancient Rome was based on this. Particular importance was given to the development of sciences and various types of research.
Ancient Roman art, particularly painting and sculpture, had much in common with art Ancient Greece. A single ancient culture gave birth to many wonderful writers, poets, and playwrights.
The history of Rome from the founding of the city to the present day is replete with various events in political, social and religious life that rightfully made it “Eternal”. Rome, located on seven hills, is one of the oldest city peace. In no country is there such a thing that an entire state is located on the territory of a city, and it is also the center of Catholic life.
To visit Italy and not visit the capital means not to have visited Italy. But to view the sights you need to know at least in general terms the history of this unique city.
Founding of Rome
The traditional founding date of the city is April 21, 753 BC. e. But even before this time there were tribal settlements on the banks of the Tiber River. It was here that two brothers Romulus and Remus grew up, whose father was the ruler of the local lands. The brothers decided to found a colony on the banks of the river, but during their activities a dispute began over where to found the city. Romulus outlined the place, indicating that there would be a settlement here. According to one version of historians, Romulus said that anyone who wanted to enter his city would be killed. Rem laughed and stepped over the border marked by his brother. Romulus considered this sacrilege and killed Remus and alone founded a fortified settlement. Romulus, as the founder of Rome, became its first king.
There were a total of seven kings in the ancient period. During their activity, Rome grew on the Palatine Hill: roads were laid connecting it with other settlements, temples were rebuilt, markets were equipped, and fortifications were built along the hills, which have survived to this day.
Among the buildings there were many sanctuaries and other sacred buildings, which indicates the high religiosity of the inhabitants of the urban settlement.
The first kings ruled cruelly, which resulted in discontent among the inhabitants and the proclamation of a republican system. Along with the proclamation of the republic, the population was immediately divided into the privileged class and the plebeians. Much of the history of Rome during this period is associated with the struggle of the plebeians for their rights.
The ancient period is marked by the activities of Lucius Cornelius Sulla, Gnaeus Pompey, Caesar and Augustus. All settlements around Rome were annexed to the city, expanding its borders. All neighboring lands were annexed by force and of good will to the Roman Empire, whose borders were constantly growing. Almost the entire Mediterranean was under the control of Rome.
Under Augustus, Rome was thoroughly fortified with ditches and walls, especially between the hills.
During democratic republic Rome began to look more and more like a city:
- the street layout was outlined;
- houses and shops were being built.
Rich people built large houses, and gradually forced out the common people to settle higher in the hills. This is how houses with several small apartments appeared. The streets were very narrow, as the land was used to the maximum and was actively developed. August moved the construction of new buildings beyond the fortress walls and ditches, increased the number of water pipes and improved sewerage. The construction of thermal baths (baths), theaters and porticos dates back to the time of his reign.
Despite the fact that Augustus was a military leader, it was he who is considered the first emperor of the Roman Empire, although formally he was called the first among the senators. But in fact, the republican system gradually turned into a monarchical one.
Caligula and Claudius continued to expand Rome.
During the reign of Emperor Nero, the center of Rome burned completely. The ruler wanted to take advantage of this and build a golden palace, but the idea was not realized. Troubles began. And only with the coming to power of Vespasian, Rome began to revive. At this time, the Colosseum was built on the site of the golden house planned by Nero.
The next rulers, Titus and Trajan, continued to develop the city by building squares and baths. Under Trajan, the empire expanded its borders even further, subjugating the Parthian state. But after his death, she was forced to change offensive tactics to defensive ones. The country was subjected to increasingly frequent raids by barbarian tribes, and Roman troops suffered significant losses.
The consolidation of the empire was facilitated by the fact that from the 4th century Christianity became the main religion. The foreign policy power of the Roman Empire was lost, but the city became the capital of the Christian world.
During the reign of the first Christian emperor Constantine, the construction of two most important church buildings took place - St. Peter's Cathedral and St. Paul's Basilica.
History of the city during the Middle Ages and Modern times
The period of destruction of the city began in the 4th century. It was subject to raids by Vandals and passed from hand to hand of various kings. Rome ceased to be the capital; it was moved to Constantinople. From the 6th to the 8th centuries, power in the city passed to local bishops and popes. All life began to revolve around St. Peter's Basilica. The Vatican finally stood out as the papal residence. The city was in decline until Pope Stephen II decided, with the help of the king of the Franks, to proclaim himself God's messenger in the lands around Rome. As a result of the agreement between the king and the pope, the Holy Roman Empire was proclaimed. The Frankish king became emperor, and Rome and the surrounding areas came under papal jurisdiction. The bishops launched a vigorous activity to build churches and cathedrals, fountains and fancy squares.
The temporal power of the Pope was ended in 1798, when French troops occupied the city and the Roman Empire was proclaimed. Finding themselves in a city filled with works of art, the French began to massively export all the most valuable things they could bring out.
Rome passed from the French to the Neapolitans, then again to the power of the Pope, and only Napoleon ended his power by proclaiming his son King of Rome.
The French did a lot for the city in terms of improvement, but Napoleon was defeated and Pope Pius VII did not fail to take advantage of this to again proclaim the papal state. It was possible to return to the republican system only after the revolution of 1848.
Until 1870, Rome constantly passed from the hands of the Pope to the hands of the French and back again. And only in the above-mentioned year the city changed its status to the capital of the Italian kingdom. The Pope became the head of the Catholic Church.
After this, all significant institutions were moved to the city, the royal court moved, and a project for a new part of the city was developed due to the large influx of residents. A real boom began in construction, but more secular and administrative buildings were built than church buildings. The city was built up at tremendous speed. All the previously empty hills were inhabited, and the Tiber turned out to be chained with stone buildings. Scientists even panicked, fearing that they would destroy all the ancient buildings.
The period of Mussolini's reign was marked by pompous buildings and the expansion of boulevards.
During World War II, Rome, although it was occupied by the Nazis, was not destroyed, unlike other European cities. In the post-war period, the capital of Italy turned into a center of the film industry and tourism. Today it is a beautiful city that has managed to preserve numerous art monuments that many tourists are so eager to see.