Activities of the Jacobins in the political sphere. The most important events of the Jacobins Events of the Jacobin dictatorship

Economic activities of the Jacobins.

Parameter name	Meaning
Article topic:	Economic activities of the Jacobins.
Rubric (thematic category)	State

Political activities of the Jacobins.

A new “Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen” and a new Constitution were developed. The Declaration enshrined equality, liberty, security and property. The right to revise the Constitution belonged only to the people. The Constitution of 1793 proclaimed France a republic, where supreme power belonged to the people. The Legislative Corps was created, which was legislative body, and executive power belonged to the Executive Council of 24 people. The Council was formed by the legislative body from candidates nominated by departments. Local government bodies were also formed on the basis of elections.

The Constitution proclaimed equality, freedom, freedom of religion, universal education, state provision, unlimited right of press, right of petition. At the same time, further developments of events, the deterioration of the internal and external situation forced the Jacobins to change their plans for the state reorganization of France. To protect the revolution, an effective state mechanism was needed, which became the system of the Jacobin dictatorship - the Revolutionary Government of the Jacobins. The National Convention became the control center, which concentrated all power in its hands. In the system of the Jacobin dictatorship there was no separation of powers. The Convention issued laws, exercised government leadership through committees and commissions, and implemented its own decrees. Highest value the management had 2 committees:

1. Committee of Public Safety , who was in charge of the country's defense and exercised direct control of the country. In fact, it was the government and the committee that controlled the activities of all government bodies.
2. Public Safety Committee , who led the fight against internal counter-revolution.

Another organ of the revolutionary struggle was revolutionary tribunal , where the only punishment was the death penalty. At the local level, the decisions of the convention were carried out by commissioners vested with emergency powers. The army was reorganized, volunteer and personnel units were united.

The lands of the immigrant nobles went on sale in small plots, and feudal rights were finally abolished. Thus, the Jacobins eliminated the remnants of feudalism in the country.

Moreover, under the conditions of that time, further development of the revolution was objectively impossible. On July 27, 1794, there was a coup, as a result of which the big bourgeoisie came to power. Prominent Jacobin figures were executed. However, this coup ends the revolution in France, although some scholars believe that it lasted until the 19th century.

After the coup, the Convention in 1795 approved a new Constitution, which included a declaration of the rights and freedoms of man and citizen. And although France remained a republic, its political appearance changed. Legislative power according to the Constitution belonged to the bicameral Legislative Corps. The executive power was vested in a directory consisting of 5 people who were appointed by the Legislative Corps. The policy of the directory was not stable and consistent and aroused the indignation of both the people and the bourgeoisie. At this time, wars continued with the feudal states of Europe, and during these wars, thanks to his talent, Napoleon Bonaparte emerged. In November 1799, he dissolved the legislative body and the directory, that is, he committed coup d'etat.

In 1799, the Constitution was adopted, which formalized the consulate regime. The period of the directory (1794 - 1799) ended.

According to the Constitution, supreme power was transferred to three consuls, the first of whom was Napoleon. The First Consul was given special powers. He had the right of legislative initiative, appointed and dismissed ministers, members of the State Council, ambassadors, generals, officials and judges. According to the Constitution, the following were created: State Council , Tribunate , Legislative body And Protective Senate who were supposed to exercise legislative power. The bills passed through all these links, but came into force only after being signed by the first consul. The Protective Senate consisted of members appointed for life, and the legislative body and tribunate were appointed by the Senate.

In 1800, the system of elected local government was abolished. Prefects were placed at the head of the departments, and sub-prefects appointed by the government were placed at the head of the district. The government also appointed city mayors. A strict system of subordination of all officials to the first consul was established. In 1802, Napoleon made the powers of the first consul lifelong and expanded them. Napoleon's power took on a monarchical character and in 1804 Napoleon was proclaimed emperor. Not only the executive, but also legislature. Napoleon's empire was called the first empire and lasted until 1814. At this time, the bourgeois state system was finally established and the basic provisions of bourgeois law were formed.

Civil Code France 1804 (Napoleonic Code).

The code was divided into 3 parts:

1. About persons, which included sections about civil rights in general, civil status acts, family law.
2. About property and various modifications of property, which included the institutions of property law.
3. About the various ways in which property was acquired. This part included inheritance law, circulation of property in the family, contracts and other obligations.

Many articles of the code were explanatory and did not regulate legal situations, that is, there was an explanation of what movable and immovable property is, what an agreement is, etc., in connection with this, the Code was cumbersome, but such a structure made it understandable. The Code established a unified concept of French citizenship and the associated unity of rights. At the same time, equality of legal capacity was not absolute, since the legal capacity of women, for example, was limited by family law. Citizenship could not only be acquired, but also lost, but the Civil Code established only private law, that is, non-political, grounds for the loss of citizenship. Rights foreign citizens in France were different from the French. Οʜᴎ were determined by agreement with any party.

Civil capacity came at the age of 21, after which its limitation was possible only within the framework of marriage and family relations or as a result of guardianship. The possibility of complete deprivation of legal capacity was provided.

The central institution of property law was the right of ownership. According to the doctrine of the Code, property had, firstly, an absolute nature, that is, the rights of the owner were practically not limited by anything, and secondly, the Code established the inviolability and inalienability of property. Taking into account the dependence on the subject of law, 3 types of property were distinguished:

1. Individual.
2. State.
3. Community and communal.

At the same time, the main attention was paid to private property, but it was stipulated that some objects are only state-owned (ports, fortresses) or only in communal ownership.

All things were divided into 4 groups:

1. Real estate (land, house).
2. Owned by real estate due to its purpose, for example, furniture in a house or livestock for cultivating land.
3. Other movable things.
4. Particularly valuable movable items (money, jewelry, private papers, collections).

This division of things was essential for various requirements for alienation and various transactions with them.

A special place in the Code belonged to contract law. The main principle of contract law was freedom of contract, which meant:

• No one should be forced into an agreement that is not in accordance with his intentions.
• The content of the agreement is determined only by the will of the parties.

Another principle of contract law was the provision on the binding force of agreements, which meant: the agreement should not be terminated by unilateral actions. These principles contributed to the development of private capitalist initiative and entrepreneurship.

The Code provided for common types of contracts: sale, exchange, hiring of things, work or services, partnerships, loan, storage, pledge.

The second source of obligations was causing damage.

In area family law An important innovation was the consolidation of the institution of only civil marriage, which was concluded by state administrative bodies according to the rules of civil registration. The age of marriage for men was 18 years, for women - 15. But up to 25 years of age, men and up to 21 years of age, women could get married only with the consent of their parents or family council. The Code recognized the right to divorce, which was allowed in cases of adultery or abuse. At the same time, some remnants of feudal law were preserved in marriage and family law. The power of the father and husband in the family was consolidated. A man could use his wife's property or income from it. For disobedience, family members could be placed in prison or a correctional home, and a wife caught in adultery could be placed in prison by the husband at his personal discretion for several days.

Inheritance remained by law and by will, but the testator could dispose of only 1/3 to 3/4 of the property belonging to him.

Economic activities of the Jacobins. - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Economic activities of the Jacobins." 2017, 2018.

The historical merit of the Jacobins was the adoption of a number of important decrees aimed at the most radical solution to the agrarian question that was only possible under the conditions of the bourgeois revolution.

June 3, 1793 - decree on preferential(with installment payment for 10 years ) sale to peasants of land confiscated from counter-revolutionaries.

The decree of June 10, 1793 returned agricultural lands previously seized by the nobles to peasant communities; at the same time, the possibility of dividing communal lands was provided for if one third of the members of these communities spoke in favor of this.

On July 17, 1793, the Decree “On the final abolition of feudal rights” was adopted. It established that all seigneurial payments and all feudal rights, both permanent and temporary, were canceled immediately and without any compensation.

The result of all these activities of the Jacobins was a radical restructuring of the entire system of land ownership on the principles of small and medium peasant land ownership

Consolidating this new situation, The Convention adopted a special decree on September 7, 1793., which stated that "no Frenchman can enjoy feudal rights in any area, on pain of deprivation of all rights of citizenship."

It took a lot of effort from the Jacobins solution social problems urban population. Under pressure from the people the Jacobins started rationing food prices, although the initial attitude of the Robespierrists to the idea of ​​a universal maximum was sharply negative.

On September 11, 1793, a decree was adopted that established uniform fixed prices for grain, flour, and fodder. Grain and flour were allowed to be sold only in markets (because only there it was possible to monitor compliance with fixed prices). To supply armies, cities and departments in need, the authorities were given the right to make requisitions.

On September 29, 1793, the Decree “On the General Maximum” was approved", according to which price limits were introduced for all basic essential goods. At the same time, the maximum dimensions were established wages(one and a half times more compared to the 1790 board). Workers who refused to work for officially established wages were subject to short-term (up to three days) imprisonment and subsequent forced mobilization through municipalities. In Paris and others major cities a card system was introduced; market trade in grain was prohibited. Food detachments were sent to the village to forcibly confiscate food. On November 1, 1793, a single maximum was established throughout the entire territory of the Republic. Monitored compliance with the universal maximum Central Commission food and supplies, created by the decree of the Convention of October 22, 1793. and endowed with the broadest powers. It was in charge of production, trade and food delivery. She was given the right to carry out requisitions, relying on armed force. By decree of July 26, 1793, speculation in essential goods was declared a criminal offense punishable by death.

The pinnacle of the social policy of the Jacobins was so-called Ventoise decrees, adopted by the Convention at the end of February - beginning of March 1794 d. According to these decrees, the Committee of Public Safety and the Committee of Public Safety were to review the cases of all persons arrested after May 1, 1789, and found innocent - to be released, and from those recognized as enemies of the revolution, to confiscate the property. Confiscated household property should be distributed free of charge among poor patriots, whose lists were to be compiled by the Committee of Public Safety based on information received from local communes. The Ventose decrees coincided with the views of the Robespierrists, inspired by the ideas of J. J. Rousseau on universal equality. The implementation of the Ventoise decrees would have led to a significant increase in the number of small owners from the ranks of the peasant and urban poor and would have significantly strengthened the social base of the Jacobin dictatorship. At the same time, the implementation of these decrees would lead to a significant undermining of the positions of the counter-revolutionary bourgeoisie and nobility. The Ventose decrees were greeted with great enthusiasm among the people, but caused fierce resistance from the owners, who were represented, among other things, in the Convention itself and in government committees. The Thermidorian coup that soon followed removed the Ventose legislation from the agenda. The May (1794) decrees of the Convention on the introduction of a system of state benefits for old age and disability, and a system of subsidies for the poor and orphans also remained unrealized.

The large and middle bourgeoisie, the wealthy and middle peasantry, as the danger of the restoration of the monarchy diminished, no longer wanted to tolerate the regime of a revolutionary dictatorship (limitation of freedom of trade and entrepreneurship, a firm policy of maximum and requisitions, revolutionary terror), which narrowed their opportunities to extract all the benefits from the victory of the bourgeois revolution. Reflection of these processes From the beginning of 1794, there was an aggravation of the political struggle in the ranks of the Jacobin bloc itself. Expressing the aspirations of the poor, left ("extreme") Jacobins (leaders of the Paris Commune J. R. Hébert, P. G. Chaumette etc.) and figures close to them in the Parisian sections and the Cordeliers Club demanded further equalization measures limiting large property and freedom of bourgeois profit, strict adherence to the maximum, tightening of revolutionary terror, war until complete victory.

On the opposite political flank “indulgent” (Dantonists) led by J. Danton and C. Desmoulins, associated with the new bourgeoisie that arose during the revolution, sought to weaken the regime of the revolutionary dictatorship, and in foreign policy- speedy conclusion of peace.

Execution in March - April 1794 of Hébert and other Hébertists, Chaumette, as well as Danton and other Dantonists, strengthening of revolutionary terror (decree of June 10, 1794) could not prevent the inexorable process of collapse of the Jacobin bloc and the growing crisis Jacobin dictatorship.

In June - July 1794, a conspiracy arose in the depths of the Convention, directed against the revolutionary government headed by Robespierre and his closest associates. Although some left-wing Jacobins also joined the conspiracy, main role representatives of the counter-revolutionary bourgeoisie played in it. As a result The Thermidorian coup (July 27/28, 1794) overthrew the Jacobin dictatorship.

Historical meaningThe Jacobin dictatorship is that it brought the bourgeois revolution in France to a decisive victory and defended its gains from internal and external counter-revolution, laid down revolutionary traditions that played and are playing a large role in the revolutionary movement of the 19-20 centuries.

She has entered her highest phase. The most radical politicians came to power, whose rule went down in history as the Jacobin dictatorship. They lasted only a year, but during this time they were able to do a lot.

Coming to power and fighting profiteering

On May 31, a revolt of the poor broke out in Paris. It was led by representatives of the most radical political group in the Convention - the Jacobins. They were supported by the urban and rural lower classes, representatives of the petty bourgeoisie. They drove up to the building of the French Parliament at gunpoint and on June 2, the deputies decided to arrest the Girondins - political opponents of the Jacobins. So a new one was established in the country political regime.

The Jacobins held power for about a year. During this period, many changes occurred in France. The situation both inside and outside the country was such that it seemed that the revolution was about to be suppressed. The armies of European states stood at the French borders: the Austrians and Prussians in the north, the Spaniards in the south, and the English fleet cruised off the coast. In the province of Vendée, a peasant uprising was raging, led by emigrant nobles. The country has worsened economic situation: food prices rose, speculation flourished. In such conditions, the introduction of emergency measures was required, and the Convention, under pressure from the Jacobins, agreed to this. In September, under the influence of the grain shortage, a law was passed establishing maximum prices for the most important goods. Violation of it was punishable by death.

Jacobin reforms

In October 1793, the French Constitution was adopted, which was the most progressive of its time. It introduced universal rights for men over 21 years of age and gave equal rights to those who vote and those for whom they vote. Laws were adopted by the Legislative Corps and came into force only after their approval by the people. But in reality, the French constitution of 1793 never came into effect. In wartime conditions, the Jacobins led the country with the help of emergency orders - decrees that had the force of law. This is how the Jacobin dictatorship developed - a system of power in which parliament was relegated to the background, and real power belonged to the executive bodies - committees.

The main support of the revolution was the peasantry, so the new government decisively carried out reforms in the agricultural sector. Already in June 1793, the communal lands were transferred to the peasants, all were liquidated, and the documents testifying to them were subject to destruction. Lands belonging to nobles and clergy were confiscated. Now the peasants have become full owners of their land plots. And although the Jacobin dictatorship did not go further than this on the agrarian issue, these laws alone provided them with the support of the peasants, who willingly defended the revolution with arms in hand.

A lot has been done in the army. The officer positions were filled by those who proved themselves in practice, and did not have a noble origin. The old officers were replaced by young people from the people. It was at this time that Napoleon Bonaparte began his career, demonstrating his organizational skills during the capture of Toulon. The Jacobins managed to pacify the uprising in the Vendée. External enemies were also repulsed. In June 1794, the revolutionary army defeated the Austrians at Fleurus, securing the French borders.

Terror and fall

At the same time, the Jacobin dictatorship also had its negative consequences. The leader of the revolutionary government, Maximilian Robespierre, and his supporters did not skimp on their means in dealing with their opponents. Terror against the Girondins and supporters of the monarchy was carried out on completely legal grounds. Already in September 1793, a decree appeared that allowed the arrest of all suspicious persons. But the terror reached its greatest extent in June 1794. The adopted concept introduced a new concept - “enemy of the people”, which would later acquire new life in Soviet Union. The document did not give a clear definition of who should be considered enemies, but it did establish punishment for them - death penalty. Legal proceedings turned into complete absurdity: a jury verdict was enough to accuse a person. The subordinates could not even dream of any lawyers. So the Jacobins provoked a wave of terror that affected thousands of people.

Mass arrests, contrary to the expectations of the authorities, did not protect them from opponents, but only accelerated the fall of the dictatorship. The most prosperous strata, who became rich during the revolution, were dissatisfied with the new order and tolerated them only until the danger of intervention had passed. The poor, who had recently brought the Jacobins to power, were also outraged by the terror and dissatisfied with their indecisive policies - laws on price restrictions were violated in every possible way, lands confiscated from the enemies of the revolution were never distributed among the poor. The finale of the Jacobin dictatorship was the coup d'etat on July 27, 1794, when their opponents in the Convention approved the decision to arrest his supporters. Soon it was carried out, and representatives of the big bourgeoisie came to power.

Many of the Jacobin reforms were reversed, and in 1795 a new government, the Directory, came to power. A new political regime was established in France, reflecting the interests of those who made their fortune during the revolution.

Jacobins and their role in the revolution. First part.

The club took its name from the meeting place of the club in the Dominican monastery of St. James on the rue Saint-Jacques in Paris.

The Jacobin Party included:

The right wing, whose leader wasGeorges Jacques Danton

Center headed by Robespierre

Left wing, led by Jean-Paul Marat.

(and after his death by Hébert and Chaumette).

Origin

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The Jacobin Club had an enormous influence on the course of the French Revolution of 1789. It has been said, not without reason, that the revolution grew and developed, fell and disappeared in connection with the fate of this club. The cradle of the Jacobin Club was the Breton Club, (Bretagne) - that's what it's called,)TThere are meetings organized by several deputies of the third estate of Brittany upon their arrival at Versailles for the States General even before their opening.

The initiative of these meetings is attributed to d'Hennebon and de Pontivy, who were among the most radical deputies of their province. Soon deputies of the Breton clergy and deputies of other provinces, holding different directions, took part in these meetings. There were Sieyes and Mirabeau, the Duke d'Aiguillon and Robespierre, Abbot Gregoire, Petion and

Barnav

Initially, the Jacobin Club consisted almost entirely of deputies from Brittany, and its meetings were held in strict secrecy. Then it included deputies from other regions. Soon the membership of the club was no longer limited to deputies of the National Assembly. Thanks to its wide membership, the Jacobin Club became a spokesman for the opinions of various groups of the population of France; even citizens of other states were members.
Soon the views of the majority of club members began to take on a more radical character. The speeches included calls for a transition to a republican form government controlled, to the introduction of universal suffrage, separation of church and state. Among the tasks of the Jacobin club, formulated in February 1790, were a preliminary discussion of issues that were to be considered by the National Assembly, improvement of the constitution, adoption of statutes, and maintaining contacts with similar clubs created in France.

The club's management decided to include into its membership societies similar in views and structure that were located in other regions of France. This decision determined future fate Jacobin Club. Within a few months, it had more than 150 branches in different regions of France, while maintaining a rigid system of centralized leadership. By July 1790, the metropolitan branch of the club had 1,200 members and met four times a week. The club was a powerful political force. Any member of the Jacobin Club who, in word or deed, expressed his disagreement with the constitution and the “Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen” was subject to expulsion from its ranks. This rule subsequently contributed to the "purges" of those club members who held more moderate views. One of the tasks formulated in February 1790 was to educate the people and protect them from misconceptions. The nature of these misconceptions has been the subject of much debate.

As the number of members grew, the organization of the club became much more complex.

At the head was a chairman, elected for a month; he had 4 secretaries, 12 inspectors, and, which is especially typical for this club, 4 censors; all these officials were elected for 3 months: 5 committees were formed at the club, indicating that the club assumed the role of a political censor in relation to the national assembly and France - committees for the representation (censorship) of members, for supervision (Surveillance ), by administration, by reports and by correspondence.

Meetings began to take place daily; the public began to be allowed to attend meetings only on October 12, 1791, that is, already under the legislative assembly.

At this time, the number of club members reached 1211 (based on voting at the meeting on November 11).

As a result of the influx of non-deputies, the composition of the club changed: it became an organ of that social stratum that the French call la bourgeoisie lettrée (“intelligentsia”); the majority consisted of lawyers, doctors, teachers, scientists, writers, painters, who were also joined by people from the merchant class.

Some of these members wore famous names: doctor Kabany, scientist Lacepede, writer Marie-Joseph Chenier, Choderlos de Laclos, painters David and C. Vernet, La Harpe, Fabre d'Eglantine, Mercier. Although with a large influx of members the mental level and educational qualifications of those arriving decreased, however, the Parisian Jacobin the club retained to the end two of its original features: doctoralism and a certain stiffness in relation to the educational qualifications.This was expressed in antagonism towards the Cordeliers club, which accepted people without education, even illiterate ones, and also in the fact that the very entry into the Jacobin club was conditional a fairly high membership fee (24 livres annually, plus another 12 livres upon joining).

Subsequently, a special branch was organized at the Jacobin Club, called “fraternal society for the political education of the people,” where women were also admitted; but this did not change the general character of the club.

The club acquired its own newspaper; its editing was entrusted to Choderlos de Laclos, who was in close relations with the Duke of Orleans; the newspaper itself began to be called the “Moniteur” of Orléanism. This revealed a well-known opposition to Louis XVI; nevertheless, the Jacobin Club remained faithful to the political principle proclaimed in its name.

At the elections to the legislative assembly that took place in early September 1791, the Jacobins were able to include only five club leaders among the 23 deputies of Paris; but his influence grew, and in the elections to the Paris municipality in November, the Jacobins gained the upper hand. From that time on, the “Paris Commune” became an instrument of the Jacobin Club.

The Jacobins began to directly influence the people at the end of 1791; To this end, prominent members of the club - Pétion, Collot d'Herbois and Robespierre himself - devoted themselves to " noble calling teach the children of the people the constitution,” that is, teach the “catechism of the constitution” in public schools. Another measure was of more practical importance - the recruitment of agents who were supposed to work in the squares or galleries of the club and the national assembly. political education adults and win them over to the side of the Jacobins. These agents were recruited from military deserters who were heading to Paris in droves, as well as from workers previously initiated into the ideas of the Jacobins.

At the beginning of 1792 there were about 750 such agents; they were under the command of a former officer who received orders from the secret committee of the Jacobin Club. Agents received 5 livres a day, but due to a large influx, this price dropped to 20 sous. The galleries of the Jacobin Club, where a crowd of 1,500 people crowded, had great educational significance in the Jacobin sense; seats were occupied from 2 o'clock, although meetings began only at 6 o'clock in the evening. Club speakers tried to keep this crowd in constant exaltation. An even more important means of acquiring influence was the seizure of the galleries in the legislative assembly through agents and the crowd led by them; in this way the Jacobin Club could exert direct pressure on the speakers of the legislative assembly and on the vote. All this was very expensive and was not covered by membership fees; but the Jacobin Club enjoyed large subsidies from the Duke of Orleans, or appealed to the “patriotism” of its wealthy members; one of these collections brought in 750,000 livres.

Although the Jacobin dictatorship did not last long, it became the highest stage of the revolution. The Jacobins were able to awaken in the people unstoppable energy, courage, courage, self-sacrifice, daring and boldness. But despite all the unsurpassed greatness, all the historical progressiveness, the Jacobin dictatorship still had limitations that are inherent in any bourgeois revolution.

The Jacobin dictatorship, both in its basis and in its policies, had enormous internal contradictions. The goal of the Jacobins was freedom, democracy, equality, but precisely in the form in which these ideas were imagined by the great bourgeois revolutionary democrats of the 18th century. They crushed and uprooted feudalism, and, according to Marx, swept away everything medieval and feudal with a “giant broom,” thereby clearing the ground for the formation of new capitalist relations. As a result, the Jacobins created all the conditions for replacing the feudal system with a capitalist one.

The Jacobin dictatorship strictly intervened in the sale and distribution of basic products and goods, speculators and those who violated maximum laws were sent to the guillotine.

But since the state during the dictatorship regulated only in the sphere of distribution and did not affect the method of production, therefore neither the policy of repression of the Jacobin government nor state regulation could weaken the economic power of the new bourgeoisie.

In addition, during this period, the economic power of the bourgeoisie increased significantly, thanks to the elimination of feudal land ownership and the sale of national property. Economic ties were destroyed by the war; at this time, great demands were placed on all economic areas of life. But, despite the restrictive measures carried out by the Jacobins, all conditions were created for the enrichment of enterprising businessmen. From everywhere, after liberation from feudalism, an energetic, courageous new bourgeoisie, eager for wealth, appeared. Its ranks constantly grew due to people from the urban petty-bourgeois strata and wealthy peasants. The sources of the rapid fabulous growth of the wealth of the new bourgeoisie were speculation in scarce goods, the sale of land, differences in the exchange rate of money, huge supplies to the army, accompanied by various frauds and frauds. The policy of repression pursued by the Jacobin government could not influence this process. Without fear of being beheaded, the rich who appeared during the revolution had the opportunity to a short time to make a huge fortune for themselves, they were uncontrollably eager to get rich and in every possible way circumvented the laws on the maximum, on the prohibition of speculation and other measures of the revolutionary government.

There is no freedom where there is no bread; there is no equality if wealth is displayed next to poverty; there is no brotherhood if a working woman with her hungry children lies at the gates of the palace.

L.-E. Varlen, 1868

Controversies of the First Republic

The establishment of a republic did not automatically solve all the problems facing France. External enemies continued to advance, the economic situation in the country was deteriorating, the people were worried and demanded changes for the better. These problems had to be eliminated quickly, and political forces each offered their own recipe for this.

Revolutionary War

Even before the overthrow of the monarchy, Danton said at a rally: “To win, you need courage, only courage, always courage - and France will be saved.” In August 1792, his call had an effect - in Paris, men began en masse to enroll as volunteers in the army. September 22nd french army won the first major battle - the Battle of Valmy. The war turned from an ordinary liberation war into a revolutionary one.

The French sought to protect not just their country, the land on which they lived. They defended the ideology of the Great French Revolution, fought for equality before the law, the right to vote, and republican rule. These ideas turned the French into heroes. The army was massively replenished with volunteers (starting from the age of 14), and they fought bravely.

One day a regiment of volunteers from Marseille arrived in Paris. They walked to the sounds of an unknown song with patriotic lyrics and a daring, sonorous, easy-to-remember motif. Its author was the young officer Rouget de Lisle. Everyone liked the song, and the other revolutionary parts learned it.

Due to its origin (from Marseille), the song was called “La Marseillaise”. It forever became the anthem of the French Republicans, and is now the national anthem of France.

The country also uses other symbols of the Great French Revolution - the tricolor banner and the motto “Freedom. Equality. Brotherhood".

Girondins and Montagnards in the Convention

Thus, the military policy of the first months of the republic was relatively successful. But the same cannot be said about domestic politics. The war caused a drop in production; the country lacked the basic necessities, and unscrupulous businessmen hid goods to sell at exorbitant prices. Food shortages were especially felt in large cities, including Paris.

The people put forward a demand for the introduction of a “bread maximum,” that is, a legislative limitation on prices for essential products. But the leading figures of the Great French Revolution could not agree on this matter.

The majority of the Convention (389 out of 749 deputies) did not have their own position, and followed the group that they considered more influential. For their unscrupulousness they were nicknamed “belly” and “swamp”. The Girondins and Montagnards actively defended their point of view.

At the first stage of the republic's existence, the Girondins were in the lead. Antoine Condorcet was an outstanding economist, Pierre Vergniaud and Pierre Brissot were excellent speakers. Jean Roland was not distinguished by any talents, but his wife, Manon-Jeanne, had enough of them. The Girondins were categorically against the maximum - it threatened “sacred private property.” They believed that the revolution had already completed all its tasks and it was time to end it.

But other participants in the French Revolution did not agree with them. Their leader was Maximilian Robespierre, a fairly young lawyer from provincial Arras. Robespierre was very modest in his personal life. For his ideal honesty, he was nicknamed Incorruptible. He was short, thin, with a quiet voice, but with such strength of conviction that everyone respected and feared him.

Robespierre (Source: The Great French Revolution and Russia. - M.: Progress. - 1989. - 552 pp.)

Danton supported the position of the Montagnards. He was so different from Robespierre that many were surprised at their union. A man of enormous stature, incredible physical strength, almost ugly (pockmarked from smallpox), Danton easily shouted down the crowd at any rally without a loudspeaker. He did not, like Robespierre, have clearly expressed convictions, but had a fiery temperament and elegant eloquence. His listeners adored him, and he could convince them of anything.

Danton (Source: The Great French Revolution and Russia. - M.: Progress. - 1989. - 552 pp.)

Danton and Robespierre were so different, and their temporary collaboration ended so tragically that artists still like to compare them.

Robespierre and Danton (Source: The Great French Revolution and Russia. - M.: Progress. - 1989. - 552 pp.)

But the alliance with the Jacobins of the Swiss doctor Jean-Paul Marat is not difficult to understand. Already an elderly man (at the beginning of the revolution he was nearly 50, and Danton and Robespierre were slightly over 30), Marat was a republican all his adult life. For his convictions, he managed to go into exile, into the underground, and into prison, but he never thought of abandoning them. For this he was highly respected among the people. Marat was a famous political writer and published the newspaper “Friend of the People.” This nickname passed on to himself.

In addition to the maximum, there were other contradictions between the Girondins and Jacobins - the decision on the fate of the king, the norms of the new constitution... Things were heading towards a conflict between the republicans.

Popular movements: “mad”, Commune

Many of those who participated in the French Revolution did not belong to known groups. But this had little effect on their influence.

One of these people was Marat, who was not a member of the Jacobin club. He defended the interests of poor people - artisans, small traders. Money for him was not an indicator of personality quality. Marat was a supporter of the revolutionary war, the “maximum”, and the trial of the king. As a member of the Convention, he personally helped many petitioners, although due to a serious skin disease he was sometimes forced to spend whole days in a bath with a medicinal solution.

Supporters of deepening the revolution also concentrated in the leadership of the city of Paris. In France, local authorities are called Communes. The Paris Commune actually became the initiator and leader of the uprising against the monarchy on August 10, 1792. Its leaders advocated the “maximum,” limiting the rights of the rich, and paying attention to the needs of the working people. One of the leaders of the Commune was Jacques-René Hébert. The prosecutor Pierre-Gaspard Chaumette fully supported the most vigorous demands of the poor.

Representatives of the “mad” emerged from among the people. They were nicknamed so by the rich for their demand to take away their excess property, to ensure a strict “maximum”, to rid the country not only of aristocrats, but also of “bloodsuckers” from the bourgeoisie. The leader of the “mad” was the former priest Jacques Roux.

The first famous woman of simple origin who became a real politician, actress Claire Lacombe, also belonged to them.

Chaumette tried to protect the “mad” from persecution with his power as the prosecutor of the Commune, and Marat tried to protect him with his authority.

Jacobin dictatorship

As we see, the sympathy of the people by the summer of 1793 was on the side of the Montagnards. The Girondists had to give in to them on some issues (in particular, condemning the king to death for treason). But they persisted on the issue of “maximum”. Difficulties also arose in the war - England joined the enemies of France, and a monarchical uprising broke out in the province of Vendee.

Establishment of the Jacobin dictatorship

On May 31, 1793, an uprising began in Paris - the poor demanded “the maximum.” The Montagnards took advantage of this and on June 2 achieved the expulsion of the Girondins from the Convention. The Jacobin dictatorship was established - only the Montagnards were considered real Jacobins.

But there was again no unity in the Convention. The most influential group (Saint-Just, Couthon, Lebas) united around Robespierre. Danton had his own group. The leaders of the Commune and Marat took the most decisive views on the rights of the poor.

On the benches of the Convention they sat to the left of the rostrum. Since then, social justice advocates have been called “leftists.”

Achievements of the Jacobins

At the initial stage of the dictatorship, the Jacobins did a good job of governing the country. On June 24, 1793, the constitution of the republic was adopted. It was installed new form rule and introduced universal suffrage for adult men. New elections to the Convention had not yet been held, but this was also the right decision - after all, there was a war going on.

The army was replenished with recruits by mobilizing all single adult men. Commanders were allowed to be elected, and talented people from the grassroots made rapid careers.

Lazar Ghosh was a groom at the age of 17, but at 24 he became a general and quickly suppressed the monarchist movement in the Vendée. The artillery captain Bonaparte received the rank of general at the same age (right after the captain's).

The new army inflicted significant defeats on the coalition troops, and for the first time the war spread from French to enemy territory. But it has not yet become aggressive - it was forcing the enemy to peace.

But other events were less successful. The long-awaited “maximum” was introduced on September 24, 1793, but before that, available food supplies were not taken into account. As a result, his situation only got worse. The introduction of a new calendar or a new religion was perceived critically even by contemporaries.

The Age of Terror and the Fall of the Dictatorship

They decided to fight the speculators with brutal persecution. The reason for introducing widespread repression was the murder of Marat in July 1793. The noblewoman Charlotte Corday, trained by the Girondins, stabbed him with a knife right in the healing bath. The era of Jacobin terror began.

Terror (fear, horror) - in politics, the practice of suppressing an ideological opponent using harsh force methods.

The French Revolution had known manifestations of cruelty before. But this was an accidental or isolated phenomenon (indignant crowds dealt with aristocrats, executed the king and queen, and other counter-revolutionaries). The new terror implied the massive imposition of death sentences without serious trial, often based on slander or simple suspicion. Their heads were cut off with a special machine - a guillotine.

The Age of Terror (Source: The Great French Revolution and Russia. - M.: Progress. - 1989. - 552 pp.)

According to historians, up to 90 thousand people became victims of terror. Among them were many revolutionaries. The leaders of the Commune and the “mad” were the first to suffer. Hébert and Chaumette were guillotined, Jacques Roux committed suicide in prison. Then Danton's group was executed - he was accused of embezzlement (his rapid enrichment gave rise to suspicion).

According to legend, on his way to the place of execution, Danton saw Robespierre in the crowd and said: “You will follow me.”

Terror was the main reason for the fall of the Jacobins. The people no longer supported them - the military problems were solved, but the economic problems were not solved. Everyone was afraid of terror. In this situation, several members of the Convention (Barras, Tallien, Fouche) formed a conspiracy. These were dishonest people, but in conditions of general discontent, their plan was a success. Robespierre and his friends were arrested on July 27, 1794. According to the new chronology, it was 9 Thermidor of the 2nd year of the republic, so the coup was called the Thermidorian coup. The next day, all the Robespierrists had their heads cut off.

None of them asked for mercy or renounced their convictions - all died heroically. And Auguste Couthon, whose legs were paralyzed, also gave the executioner advice on how to place his awkward body under the guillotine...