Reasons for using euphemisms. Basic research. Examples of euphemisms in Russian
Euphemisms - soft equivalents of harsh words or expressions, allowing you to maintain a friendly atmosphere of contact with your interlocutor. Euphemisms are a common tool of psychological manipulation.
An example of a pseudoscientific euphemism: “Ethereal emanations represent the emanation of charisma into your aura.”
Euphemisms are used in business negotiations:
- To replace unpleasant definitions;
- To disguise the true essence of words and expressions;
- To distract the interlocutor's attention from the true essence of the matter.
Examples
|
Common words, expressions |
Euphemisms |
| You must | I would like to |
| Failure | Incomplete victory |
| Price increase | Liberalization, regularization or regulation of prices |
| Tax increases | Unpopular measures |
| Business partners did not appear at the plenary meeting. | For certain reasons, representatives of business partners did not participate in the plenary meeting |
| The head of the Ministry of Industry and Energy said that Russian citizens will soon experience an uncontrolled rise in electricity prices. | The head of the Ministry of Industry and Energy emphasized that the approval of the terms and principles of liberalization of the wholesale electricity market will give the investor the right signal - investments in the Russian energy sector will pay off. |
The ability of euphemisms to manipulate the interlocutor in negotiations is determined by the fact that:
- the interlocutor usually does not have time to comprehend euphemisms, since the abundance of information makes it difficult critical assessment information;
- Most business people are not familiar with the manipulative effects of euphemisms.
Another way manipulative euphemism is replacing an affirmative verbal construction with a negative one of similar meaning.
Examples.
A way of manipulative influence on interlocutors is collision of contradictory components of speech. Texts often contain expressions like "decline in economic growth" who, while reporting a decline in growth rates, do not deny the existence of growth rates.
Example from the press:“Oil companies continued to demonstrate negative growth rates in crude oil production in August.”
Conclusions.
- The tighter the interlocutor’s self-control of speech, the more likely he is to use euphemisms.
- The more euphemisms found in a particular speech, the less it can be trusted. You should directly ask the interlocutor for the decoding of each euphemism.
About Alexander Char
JOB: Director of the JSC Editorial Board of the magazine "Sunday. Soviet Union". Chief Editor and head of educational projects of the magazine "New Russia". PUBLIC WORK: Member of the Board of the International Public Organization "Knowledge" Society of Russia, head of the department of "Hypnorolling" at the International University of Interdisciplinary Knowledge, corresponding member of the International Academy of Sciences of Pedagogical Education. EDUCATION: Received higher education at Moscow Higher Technical University named after. N.E. Bauman and the Moscow Institute of Electronic Engineering, scientific degree of Candidate of Technical Sciences, leading researcher REU im. G.V. Plekhanov, graduate of the Department of Economics and Finance in Russian Academy civil service under the President of the Russian Federation. Head of large investment projects in Moscow. PUBLICATIONS: Linguistic suggestion, development of memory, attention and intuition. Economics and technology of mechanical engineering. Copyright certificates for technical inventions and software systems. Author of television projects “Spring Water”, “Pacer Code”, “Eldorado”. Author of the development concept traditional medicine in the Russian Federation. Developer training courses on technologies of communication and personal development “Secrets of successful exams”, “Wordplay”, business courses “Talisman of Good Luck”, “Secrets of a Mentalist”, etc. HOBBIES: Psychological illusions, hypnosis, mentalism, creating videos. Millions of viewers saw his public appearances in dozens of programs on central television channels.Nikitina I.N.
SOCIAL EUPHEMISM IN MODERN RUSSIAN AND ENGLISH LANGUAGES
SOCIAL EUPHEMISMS IN MODERN RUSSIAN AND ENGLISH LANGUAGES
Key words: euphemisms, social euphemisms, business euphemisms, methods of forming euphemisms.
Key words: euphemisms, social euphemisms, business euphemisms, patterns of euphemisms formation.
annotation
The article touches upon the problem of the functioning of social euphemisms in modern English and Russian languages. Using the example of euphemisms from one thematic group - economics and business - the methods of euphemism characteristic of the English and Russian languages are analyzed, and the ethical aspects of the euphemistic nomination are considered.
An attempt of comparative analysis of social euphemisms in Russian and English languages is made. Euphemisms of business and economic spheres in two languages are being investigated. Common and peculiar features in business euphemisms formation of Russian and English languages are revealed.
“Euphemism is the replacement of any illegal or unwanted word or expression with a more correct one in order to avoid directly naming anything that can cause negative feelings in both the speaker and the interlocutor, as well as in order to disguise certain facts of reality”1. From this definition follow the main goals of communication, which determine the euphemization of speech:
1. The main goal pursued by speakers when using euphemisms in social and interpersonal relationships is the desire to avoid communicative conflicts and not create a feeling of communicative discomfort in the interlocutor. In other words, these are euphemisms dictated by a sense of delicacy or political correctness.
2. More specific - in the social sense - is another purpose of euphemization: veiling, camouflage of the essence of the matter.
The most comprehensive, in our opinion, lexical-semantic classification of euphemisms was compiled by L.P. Krysin. He divided the spheres of functioning of euphemisms into personal, relating to the life and personality of the speaker, the addressee and third parties, and social, relating to a person’s relationships with other people, with society, with power:
"1. Personal:
Some physiological processes and conditions;
Certain parts of the body associated with the "bottom";
Relations between the sexes;
Disease and death.
2. Social:
"O.V. Obvintseva. Euphemism in political communication (based on material in English in comparison with Russian): dis. ...cand. Philol. Sci. - Ekaterinburg, 2003. P. 14.
Diplomacy;
Repressive actions of the authorities;
State and military secrets and secrets;
Activities of the army, intelligence, police, criminal investigation and some other authorities;
Distribution and service area;
Relations between different national and social groups;
Some types of professions"2.
Thus, personal and social euphemisms can include a variety of thematic groups included in a given area of functioning of euphemisms.
In different languages and at different times, certain thematic groups of euphemisms become productive. So, in English, for example, unlike Russian, there is traditionally a large group of substitute names associated with the name of God, Jesus Christ. Instead of the words God, Jesus, Christ, Lord, their numerous euphemistic variants can be used: God - Dad, Gar, Gawd, Gord, Gott, Gosh, Gol, Godfrey, gum, gub, gorra, Goshen...; Jesus - chee, cheesy, chiz, jacks, jaises, jees, jeepers, jim, jing, jingo, jink...; Christ - cracky, creation, Cris, cricket, cricky, cringe, cripes...; Lord - Law, Lawd, Laws, Lordy, Lorsy, Lawks... In the above options, among other things, the technique of creating euphemisms, such as sound analogy, is clearly visible. It should be noted that sound analogy is intensively used in English, German, Italian, but to a lesser extent in Russian.
Dynamic socio-economic changes in modern society contribute to the fact that the most productive in many modern languages social euphemisms and, above all, a thematic group of euphemisms related to economics and business become.
The euphemisms of this thematic group became the subject of this study. The material for the analysis was English euphemisms in the sphere of business and economics, presented in dictionaries of English euphemisms published in the UK and the USA3, as well as Russian and English euphemisms of this thematic group, recorded in various printed publications of the last decade.
Thus, in Russian economic discourse in Lately Many replacement names have appeared to denote the economic crisis - growth without development, cessation of development, attenuation of growth, zero growth rates, downward correction; designations of negative phenomena associated with the crisis - price liberalization (instead of “price increases”), liquidity problems (instead of “lack of money”), optimization / release of personnel (instead of “dismissal”), social benefits (instead of “poverty benefits” ), the bottom layer of the buyer pyramid (instead of “poor”).
Crises in the economy manifest themselves primarily in the bankruptcy of companies and growing unemployment. These phenomena in the English-speaking business environment are subject to persistent euphemization.
The methods of forming English euphemisms for the thematic subgroup “bankruptcy” are very diverse. Firstly, metaphors are widely used to replace this direct name: take a bath (take a bath) or the American euphemism fall out of bed (fall out of bed) - instead of having big financial problems; close its doors (close your doors), fold (curl up), take a haircut (get a haircut), wash out/up (wash off) -
2 Krysin L.P. Euphemisms in modern Russian speech // Russian language of the end of the 20th century (1985 - 1995). - M.: Languages of Russian culture, 2000. - P. 389-400.
3 Ayto J. Dictionary of Euphemisms. Bloomsbury, Britain, 2000; Berdoll L.,Very Nice Ways to Say Very Bad Things. The Unusual Book of Euphemisms. Well, There It Is Del Valle, Texas, 2003; Enright D.J. In Other Words. The Meanings and Memoirs of Euphemisms. Michael O'Mara Books Ltd., London, 2005; Holder R.W. Oxford Dictionary of Euphemisms. How Not to Say What You Mean. Oxford University Press Inc., New York, 2003; Neaman J.S. & Silver C.G. Kind Words: A Thesaurus of Euphemism. Avon Books, New York, 1990; Rowson H.A. Dictionary of Euphemisms and Other Doubletalk. Castle Books, - New York, 2002.
instead of “go bankrupt/bankrupt”.
Technical terms can be used as euphemisms:
over-geared (include accelerated transmission: gearing is a term for denoting the ratio of assets and liabilities of a company) - instead of “insolvent”;
hammer (to hit with a hammer: the blow of a hammer on the stock exchange called for silence before the official announcement) - instead of “go bankrupt.”
Foreign borrowings, primarily from the English language, serve as a productive way of forming replacement names for the Russian language. Lexemes of foreign language origin often replace an undesirable word, since their meaning does not cause negative connotations due to the lack of an internal form. As the analysis showed, euphemisms can be borrowed in the Russian language in two forms:
1) in the form of a tracing paper (element-by-element translation into Russian of an English euphemism while maintaining its meaning), for example, a period of negative economic growth< period of negative economic growth (вместо «экономический кризис/economic crises»);
2) in the form of barbarisms (foreign words or expressions not fully mastered by the language and perceived as a violation of generally accepted language norm), for example, fluctuation An analysis of modern social euphemisms shows that among the motives of euphemism, the desire to disguise an unpleasant truth and, thus, mislead the listener or reader is increasingly coming to the fore. In the American press, the use of euphemisms in economic discourse received the ironic name “creative economic semantics”4 (creativity in economic semantics). An example of such “creativity” is the replacement in the speech of economists and politicians of the unpopular term “tax increases” with harmless “revenue enhancement” (increasing tax revenues to the budget) and “closing loopholes” (closing loopholes to minimize the tax burden). The appearance in the speech of economists and financiers of a large number of euphemistic metaphors, softening and veiling the direct names of unseemly, dishonest transactions, has become a sign of our time - a time of financial and economic turmoil. It became possible to veil the juggling of figures in reports using the English euphemisms adjust figures or massage figures. The most commonly used adjective creative (creative) in the phrases creative accounting, creative bookkeeping (creative financial reporting, creative accounting) has recently replaced the unambiguous dishonest (dishonest). In Russian economic discourse, a similar euphemism “a creative approach to the preparation of financial statements” appeared, which replaced the previously widely used euphemism “black accounting.” To correct or perform a cosmetic operation undoubtedly does not sound as scary as the direct name “falsify statements.” Such a negative phenomenon in the economy as a fall in exchange rates or devaluation is softened in English by the euphemism exchange rate adjustment, currency adjustment. And if you come across the expression price adjustment, you can say with a high degree of confidence that in this case we are talking about a negative trend. The euphemistic phrase technical adjustment is used to soften the name of negative processes on the stock exchange: in this case, they try to explain the fall in stock quotes as a technical problem associated with a formal stock exchange operation, and not as a consequence of deeper negative trends. 4Rothbard Murray. Making Economic Sense - http://mises.org/econsense/ch4.asp How ethical the use of such euphemisms is can be judged by the example of euphemistic names such as company reorganization and optimization widely used in the context of mass reductions. When a company characterizes the layoff of a significant number of employees as a reorganization or optimization, when it does not intend to recognize the reduction in its size as a player in the market in other aspects than the number of employees, and recognize that the changes made are permanent, it is nothing more than an attempt to deliberately mislead your employees. A “company reorganization” is a conscious decision to reduce the size of a company, including production volume, market share and revenue. "Optimizing" company size assumes that the company's workforce was too large, the company was producing too much, its market share was too large, and its profits were too high. In reality, most layoffs stem from management's desire to cut short-term costs, boost quarterly earnings, and do not reflect a decision to produce less, give up market share, or give up company growth. Thus, the use of these euphemisms when announcing mass layoffs inevitably misinforms workers and violates their rights to receive full information. The use of business euphemisms in general inevitably raises questions about the legality and ethics of such replacement names. Bibliography 1. Krysin, L.P. Euphemisms in modern Russian speech // Russian language of the end of the 20th century (1985 - 1995). - M.: Languages of Russian Culture, 2000. - P.384-407. 2. Nikitina, I.N. Euphemisms as an object of research in British and American linguistics // Questions of Philology. - M., 2008. - No. 2(29). - pp. 111-114. 3. Obvintseva, O.V. Euphemism in political communication (on the material of the English language in comparison with Russian): dis. ...cand. Philol. Sci. - Ekaterinburg, 2003. 4. Senichkina, E.P. Dictionary of euphemisms of the Russian language. - M., 2008. 5. Allan, K. & Burridge, K. Forbidden words. Taboo and Censoring of Language. - Cambridge University press, 2006. 6. Ayto, J. Wobbly Bits and Other Euphemisms. - A&C London, 2007. 7. Bowe, H., Martin, K. Communication across Cultures. Mutual Understanding in a Global World. - Cambridge University Press, 2007. 8. Enright, D.J. Fair of Speech: The Uses of Euphemism. - Oxford Univ. Press, 1985. 9. Enright, D.J. In Other Words. The Meanings and Memoirs of Euphemisms. - Michael O'Mara Books Ltd., London, 2005. 10. Holder, R.W. A Dictionary of Euphemisms. How not to Say What You Mean. - Oxford University Press Inc., New York, 2003. 11. McGlone, M., Batchelor, J. Looking Out for Number One: Euphemism and Face // Journal of Communication. - 2003, vol. 53, No. 2. 12. Rothbard Murray. Making Economic Sense - http://mises.org/econsense/ch4.asp. 13. Rowson, H.A. Dictionary of Euphemisms and Other Doubletalk. - New York, 2002. 14. Warren, B. What Euphemisms Tell Us about the Interpretation of Words. // Studia Linguistica. - 1992, 46/2, pp.128 - 165. STATE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION "ST. PETERSBURG STATE UNIVERSITY ECONOMICS AND FINANCE" Abstract on Russian language and speech culture on the topic of: Euphemisms in modern Russian speech
Performed: student 105 group B105 Solodyuk M.V. Saint Petersburg 2010 Preliminary remarks
When addressing the topic of “euphemisms,” the researcher is forced to involve in the analysis not only the euphemistic expressions themselves, but also the socio-cultural and linguistic background against which the need for euphemisms arises. To complete the picture, it is necessary to mention such realities and such vocabulary that are usually beyond the attention of linguists. As a native speaker of a literary language and simply a person who follows certain cultural norms, this can cause internal rejection and protest in the researcher himself, however, as an impartial observer recording everything that happens in the language, he is obliged to study such “unpleasant” facts . This remark serves as a warning to the reader about what kind of lexical material he will encounter when reading this article, and, at the same time, as an apology to him if he feels some moral discomfort when reading this material. In modern Russian speech, two opposing trends are quite clearly manifested: towards the coarsening of speech and towards its euphemization. I will indicate only a few strokes that characterize the first trend, since a detailed analysis of it is not the scope of this essay. At the lexical level, coarsening is expressed in an increase in the use of coarsely colloquial and slang words and expressions (for example, “bitch”, “bastard”, “bastard”, “scoundrel”, “get rid of it”, “hang noodles on one’s ears”, etc. ), and not only in the oral and everyday sphere, but also in some genres of written and public speech, in radio and television journalism (for example, the word usage of the famous television reporter A. Nevzorov). One of the manifestations of freedom of speech that came at the turn of the 80s and 90s was the lifting of the ban on the use of obscene language both in artistic and semi-fictional texts, and in various genres of everyday and public speech, including those intended for a mass addressee : swear words are not uncommon in modern films, television programs, newspaper and magazine articles. As Z. Kester-Thoma aptly put it, the “unprinted” word became “printed” (Kester-Thoma 1993, 26). Also indicative is the decreasing influence of gender differences between speakers on the use of such vocabulary: rude expressions and words, including swear words (mainly in their expressive rather than nominative function), are used by both men and women. At the same time, social restrictions here are not very significant: such word usage, according to our observations, is typical not only for the working environment (where it has long been a constant attribute of speech communication), but also, for example, for acting, writing, and journalism. True, restrictions remain related to the type of addressee: obscene vocabulary is used more freely in an environment homogeneous in gender and age than in a heterogeneous one (that is, for example, women of the same age use obscenities more freely when communicating with each other than when communicating in mixed companies and even more so when addressing men). The age threshold for using swear words is also lowering: many teenagers and even 10-12 year old schoolchildren freely use swear words and expressions in both homogeneous and gender-diverse peer groups. Changes are taking place in the normative status of a number of words and lexical groups. Thus, words denoting certain physiological functions previously had an extremely limited scope of use (compare the verbs “poop”, “write” - in children’s speech and when adults address a small child); now they can also appear in written texts intended for a mass addressee. The normative status of some medical terms has also changed: a number of terms related to the sexual sphere and previously used in highly specialized texts or in a narrow professional environment (for example, “coitus”, “orgasm”, “clitoris”, “penis”) are now used quite freely in non-specialized speech - in a newspaper article, radio or television program, in everyday speech. In addition to the lexical features of a number of genres of modern Russian speech, one can note some of its intonation properties, indicating the coarsening of habitual forms of communication. Thus, in certain socio-professional and age groups (for example, among sales workers, consumer services workers, hotel service workers, nurses, typists, among working youth, students of vocational schools, high school students) rough, from a traditional point of view, is the intonation of ordinary informative dialogue (both in “one’s own” environment and in conversations with outsiders). In general, if we use evaluative rather than strictly linguistic terms, today the level of aggressiveness in people’s speech behavior is extremely high. Starting from everyday conversations between housemates and skirmishes in store lines and ending with rallies in squares and debates in parliament, the sound of speech is characterized by such features as rigidity in assessing the behavior of the interlocutor, extreme negative expressiveness when discussing what the speaker, excited, does not agree with. often a hostile tone of speech, etc. The genre of speech invective has become unusually intensified, using a variety of means of negatively assessing the behavior of the addressee’s personality - from expressive words and phrases that are within the limits of literary usage, to coarse colloquial vocabulary. All these features of modern oral and, partly, book and written speech are a consequence of negative processes occurring in extra-linguistic reality; they are closely related to general destructive phenomena in the field of culture and morality. Euphemization of speech
To a certain extent, the process of euphemization of speech, which is also very characteristic of its modern state, is opposite in nature, goals and results of the means used. It seems that the following points are essential for the euphemization process: 1)
the speaker’s assessment of the subject of speech as such, the direct designation of which can be qualified - in a given social environment or by a specific addressee - as rudeness, harshness, indecency, etc.; apparently, only certain objects, realities, spheres of human activity and human relations can evoke such an assessment - others are “neutral” from this point of view; therefore, not all speech is euphemized, but speech related to certain topics and areas of activity; 2)
the speaker’s selection of such designations that not only soften certain seemingly rude words and expressions, but mask and veil the essence of the phenomenon; this is especially clearly seen in the example of semantically vague medical terms (“neoplasm” instead of the frightening “tumor”) or foreign language terms that are therefore not understandable to everyone (for example, “pediculosis” instead of “lice”), etc., as well as in the use words with “diffuse” semantics: known, definite, proper, special, etc.; 3)
the dependence of the use of euphemism on the context and on the conditions of speech: the stricter the social control of the speech situation and the speaker’s self-control of his own speech, the more likely the appearance of euphemisms; and, on the contrary, in poorly controlled speech situations and with high automaticity of speech (communication in the family, with friends, etc.), “direct” designations, or dysphemisms, may be preferred to euphemisms; 4)
social conditioning of the idea of what can be a euphemism: what is regarded as a euphemism in one environment may receive different assessments in another. Topics and areas of euphemization
The speaker's assessment of a particular subject of speech from the point of view of decency / indecency, rudeness / politeness is usually focused on certain topics and areas of activity of people (or relationships between them). Traditionally, these topics and areas are: some physiological processes and conditions. Compare "Free your nose!" - instead of “Blow your nose!”; “empty the intestines”; “malaise” (about menstruation); “She is expecting a baby” - instead of “She is pregnant”, etc.; certain parts of the body associated with the "bottom of the body". Objects of this kind are such that even their euphemistic designation in everyday speech is perceived by the majority as not quite decent - compare, for example, colloquial and slang designations for the male penis: “end”, “stick”, “device”, “sausage”, “banana” or female vagina: “hole”, “well”, “pelvis”, “loofah”, “piggy bank”; among physicians, as is known, Latin is used for these purposes; relations between the sexes. Compare “to be in a close relationship, in an intimate relationship”, “physical intimacy” and the colloquial use of the verbs “meet”, “be friends”, “walk” (with someone); illness and death. For example, “feel bad” instead of “sick”; “left us”, “he passed away” instead of “died”, etc. The topics of death and funeral, if these events are relevant (either coincide with the moment of speech, or are separated from it by a short period of time), are verbalized almost exclusively with the help of euphemisms. Compare: “demise” instead of “death”; lethal outcome as a medical euphemism replacing “too direct” death. The actions of institutions involved in organizing funerals are referred to in the official language as ritual services, which are vague and euphemistic in nature. These spheres of euphemism can be called personal; they concern the personal life and personality of the speaker, the addressee and third parties. In addition, the phenomenon of euphemization is observed in various spheres of social life of a person and society. It is important to emphasize that in modern conditions, the most developed are the methods and means of euphemization that affect socially significant topics, areas of human activity, his relationships with other people, with society, with the authorities. Euphemisms in social spheres of human activity
Let us consider this type of euphemism, characterizing the purposes of euphemism; spheres of social life in which euphemistic language means are used more often than others; linguistic methods and techniques of euphemization; social differences between speakers in the creation and use of euphemisms. Purposes of euphemization of speech
1.
The main goal pursued by speakers when using euphemisms in social and interpersonal relationships is the desire to avoid communicative conflicts and failures, and not create a feeling of communicative discomfort in the interlocutor. In euphemisms of this kind, an object, an action, a property is called differently, in a more polite form - compared to other methods of nomination. Compare, for example, the words “impaired of hearing” instead of “deaf”, “blind” instead of “blind”, used as peculiar terms, as well as statements like “He is limping” about a severely limping person, “Yes, I’m sick for some reason - the temperature is about forty " and so on. Euphemisms- these are words and... speech In artistic style speeches there are three types of transmission speeches: straight speech, indirect speech and improperly straight speech... . Academic grammar modern Russian language calls accession... Quite respectable. Such euphemisms V Russian language often appear... appear and penetrate into Russian speech and in Russian language slang criminal words, ... high style, not lost in modern Russian language heritage of interaction with... Introduction………………………………………………………………………………….3 1 Euphemism as a phenomenon of language and speech……..………………………..……………..5 1.1 The concept of euphemism……………………………………………..…………5 1.2 Euphemia and principles of communication…………………..………………….9 1.3 Methods of forming euphemisms……………….……………………….13 2Political correctness as one of the motives for using euphemisms…………………………………………………………………………………16 2.1 The concept of political correctness……….…………………………….19 2.2 Media and euphemism……………………………………………………….…23 List of sources used…………………………………….………27 Introduction Today, there is no doubt that the language system is constantly changing. And the well-being of many people often depends on the ability to organically transform their thoughts into words. That is why it is important to understand not only the meanings of new words, but also to be able to correctly use existing ones. Nomination, that is, “giving a name” to a particular thing, can be direct or indirect. The use of direct nomination usually does not cause any special problems. But when it comes to indirect nomination, that is, naming the same object in other words that present it in a different light, difficulties arise in a number of cases. This course work examines one of the methods of secondary nomination - euphemization. When studying euphemisms, a linguist must consider and analyze not only the euphemistic expressions themselves, but also the socio-cultural background against which the need for this method of nomination arises. It should be taken into account that, unlike ordinary vocabulary, euphemisms are extremely sensitive to public assessments of certain phenomena, both “decent” and “indecent”. Connected with this is the historical variability of the status of euphemism: what seems to be a successful euphemistic name to one generation may be regarded in subsequent generations as undoubted and unacceptable rudeness, again requiring a euphemistic replacement. Relevance. This work is devoted to the phenomenon of euphemism in modern German. Within the framework of lexicology, interest in euphemism is associated with the manifestation of the dynamism of lexical meaning, the problems of the nominative activity of a linguistic personality, and the processes of updating the vocabulary of a language. The relevance of this course work is determined by the fact that, despite the variety of aspects in which euphemism is studied, many issues remain controversial: reliable criteria for identifying euphemism have not been developed, and there is no generally accepted definition of it. The minimum number of special studies devoted to the problem of euphemism in the modern German language in Russian German studies determined the choice of the topic of this work. Object of study This work are euphemisms of the German language. Item research - features of their formation and use in speech. Target The work consists of studying euphemisms of the German language and their functions in speech. The object, subject and purpose of the study made it possible to determine the next circle tasks: Consider euphemisms as a way of secondary nomination Expand the euphemism of the German language in the language of politics. Research methods: generalization and comparison as general scientific methods used in the analysis of theoretical literature. The work consists of an introduction, 6 paragraphs, a conclusion and a bibliography. Practical significance- is that the results and 1
Euphemism as a phenomenon of language and speech The word "euphemism" comes from the Greek eu -
"Fine", phemi- “I say” and has been used since the times of the ancient Greeks to denote a stylistic trope that serves to verbally soften a rude or obscene expression. The problems of euphemism have been repeatedly considered in the works of domestic and foreign linguists based on various languages: [Caney 1960; Widlak 1967; Katsev 1989; Krysin 1996; Pavlova 1996; Gumirova 1997; Moskvin 1998; Borgoyakov 1998; Kudryashova 2000] and others. In the past, domestic linguists did not pay due attention to the problems of euphemism, due to the conviction that was established in Soviet times about “the exposure of euphemisms and the preference for direct expressions characteristic of the socialist era” [Larin 1977: 114]. Euphemisms are not included in explanatory dictionaries of the Russian language, and there are no special dictionaries for this genre. This gap is now beginning to be filled. There has been great interest in the problem of euphemism in recent years. Dissertation works appear [Pavlova 1996; Rodchenko 2000; Tyurina 1998] and other publications on this issue [see, for example, Bolotnova 1998; Evseeva 2000; Kikvidze 1997; Kochetkova 1998; Kuzhim 1997; Mankovskaya 1997; Pavlova 2000; Sheigal 1997; Dubov, 1994]. The study of euphemism is currently an urgent linguistic problem, because the processes of formation of euphemisms as words or expressions that replace a rude, indecent, unpleasant word in the language occur extremely intensively, as evidenced by the widespread use of euphemistic units in the works of art of modern authors, the activation lexicographic work in the field of euphemism. There are quite a few definitions of the concept “euphemism” in the linguistic literature. They reflect the various functions of this phenomenon. A number of definitions are based on the function of euphemism as a softening of the rude and unpleasant. These definitions describe a euphemism as “a mild, vague, or peri-phrastic expression to replace rough precision or unpleasant truth”; as “a method by which an unpleasant, offensive or fearful word is replaced by an indirect or milder term” [Ch. Caney I960];as: “a word or phrase that is used to replace an unpleasant word or expression with a relatively more acceptable one” [I. R. Galperin 1981]. Other scientists, along with the function of mitigation, note the importance of social motives, defining euphemisms as expressions that “are designed to minimize the unpleasant impression on the listener or possible unpleasant consequences for the speaker if the latter wants to make a favorable impression” [Partridge 1964]; or as “indirect substitutes for the names of the terrible, shameful or odious, brought to life by moral or religious motives, contributing to the softening effect” [Katsev 1989]; and also with the aim of “avoiding communicative conflicts and failures, not creating a feeling of communicative discomfort in the interlocutor” [L. Krysin 1996]; or as “used instead of a thematically stigmatic or socially incorrect antecedent, instead of words or expressions that seem to the speaker to be prohibited, indecent, unacceptable from the point of view of accepted moral norms in society, or even simply rude and tactless” [E. Tyurina 1998]:. In addition to the above, there are also definitions based on the recognition of the function of masking reality behind euphemisms: “euphemism is that form of words that (for various reasons) expresses an idea in a softened or veiled or more respectful form. Moreover, this softening is sometimes only apparent” [Lawrence 1973]; “euphemization is the use of a non-offensive or pleasant term instead of a direct, offensive one, while masking the truth” [Niman, Silver 1990]. Based on the foregoing, we can conclude that euphemism performs three functions: In our opinion, the essence of the concept of euphemism is most fully expressed by the definition formulated by N.S. Arapova. A euphemism, in her opinion, is a stylistically neutral word or expression used instead of a synonymous linguistic unit that seems indecent, rude or tactless to the speaker; euphemisms often veil and mask the essence of a phenomenon; For example: die
instead of die,
tell a lie
instead of lie,
price liberalization instead of price increase,
product
(about the atomic bomb) [Arapova N.S 1990:25]. 1.2 Euphemia and principles of communication Euphemistic replacement is associated with the fulfillment or deliberate non-compliance with the so-called requirements for speech. A list of such requirements (advantages to be strived for and disadvantages to be avoided) was formed back in antiquity. The main qualities of speech were recognized as “correctness, unambiguousness, logic, clarity, accuracy, euphony, beauty, variety, clarity, brevity, relevance, credibility” [Moskvin 2001]. A major role in the formulation and systematization of the rules of communication belongs to the famous specialists in the theory of speech acts P. Grice and J. Leach. They formulated the postulates and principles of verbal communication. The basic principle, called by Grice the “principle of cooperation,” is the requirement to make contributions to the speech message consistent with the accepted purpose and direction of the conversation. This principle is subject to four categories of postulates: 1) the category of quantity (the statement must provide complete information), 2) the category of quality (the information must not be false), 3) the category of attitude, which is associated with the only postulate of relevance (the statement must relate to the essence of the matter ), 4) category of method (the statement should be brief and unambiguous) [Grice 1985: 222-223]. An equally important principle that regulates relationships in verbal communication is the principle of politeness formulated by J. Leach. This principle is specified in six postulates [cit. according to Arutyunova 1985: 27]: 4th postulate of modesty (blame yourself as much as possible and praise yourself as little as possible); 5 postulate of agreement (strive for maximum agreement between yourself and others); 6th postulate of sympathy (show maximum sympathy for people). Failure to comply with these requirements, when speakers violate the rules of communication, leads to incomprehensibility, illogicality, ambiguity and other shortcomings of speech. The reasons for this may be reprehensible communicative goals (deception, slander, slander, insults, etc.), excessive politeness, fear of sanctions for truthful but negative information, etc. At the same time, failure to comply with speech requirements may be communication -actively justified, if only in this way the goal of communication can be achieved. Euphemization refers to communicatively justified violations of speech requirements. If some of Grice's postulates are not observed - the postulates of the quality category ("Don't say what you think is false"), the postulates of the method category ("Avoid unclear expressions", "Avoid ambiguity") [Grice 1985: 222-223], nevertheless, its global principle of cooperation is observed - to make a contribution to speech communication that is consistent with the accepted goal of the conversation. The ambiguity that arises during euphemization is intentional and serves the ultimate communicative goal - to soften the direct meaning of a harsh or rude statement that is unpleasant for the interlocutor. Thus, the phenomenon of euphemism refers to linguistic universals, is an integral component of the communication process and serves as one of the main means of conflict-free and successful communication. The communicative parameters of the euphemization process also include its motives. Euphemization motives are the reasons for replacing some words and expressions with others, defined and classified, however, differently by different linguists. Some authors, for example, identify a large number of groups of motives, others, for example, [Katsev 1989; Kapu 1960; Neaman, Silver 1990] divide the entire set of motives into two or three large groups, uniting them according to more general characteristics. The classification of E. Partridge can be considered the most complete and comprehensive. However, its significant drawback is some vagueness in the formulation of euphemization motives and insufficient clarity of the criteria for their identification. E. Partridge identifies the following motives for euphemization: The desire to adapt to the corresponding general mood, The desire to increase the value of what one has (a form of hyperbole). .
The desire to show respect to the one you are addressing, to produce The need to downplay or soften a painful memory or The existence of social and moral taboos. The existence of superstitions and religious taboos. Based on the previous classifications, a more complete classification can be presented: 1 Social motives for euphemization. 1.1 The need to show respect to various social groups. This motive explains: Names related to race, age, gender and Names of concepts related to poverty; Names of mental and physical disabilities of a person, 1.2 The desire to increase the significance of certain realities of the social sphere: Names of some professions, institutions, etc.; 2 Moral and ethical motives for euphemization. 2.1The desire not to violate certain moral and ethical prohibitions established by society. This motive is due to Names of human vices; Names related to the field of physiology; Names associated with the concepts of death; Names related to the field of family and marriage; Names related to the sexual sphere; Names of animals and animal meat; Strong curse words; 3 Euphemization motives associated with religion and superstitions: Names of supernatural forces; 4 Communicative motives of euphemism. Some titles related to the field of politics; 4.2 The desire to disguise the unpleasant truth. Names related to the military sphere; Titles related to the field of politics; Titles related to the criminal sphere; Some titles related to business and commerce; Names associated with special educational institutions. This classification of euphemization motives identifies four aspects: social, moral and ethical, religious, communicative, thus, all subject-conceptual spheres of modern taboos are somehow ordered within these aspects. The phenomenon of euphemism is one of the linguistic universals and serves as one of the main means of conflict-free and successful communication. Among the various ways of forming euphemisms, the most common are the following: Metaphorical transfer The use of metaphorical transfer is the most productive way of forming euphemistic vocabulary. A metaphor, creating a vivid image, brightens up the unpleasant or rough aspects of the main, nominative meaning of the word. Thanks to metaphor, it is possible to create such a remarkable image that the main meaning generally becomes secondary. Drette Zähne Metonymic transfer Metonymization of meanings as a method of forming euphemisms is based on associative connections between a denotation in the sphere of taboo (antecedent) and a harmless denotation. Metonymy is not a common means of euphemizing German vocabulary. This is due to the fact that metonymy cannot veil the unpleasant aspects of phenomena and objects as much as metaphor or expansion of semantic meaning can, for example der/die Schwarze Borrowing The euphemistic function of borrowings has long been known to linguists and is associated with the peculiarity of perception of the internal form, or the motivation of the linguistic sign of the borrowed word. In most cases, the internal form of a word is not transparent to those borrowing the word, and the meaning is not motivated, as a result of which there are no negative associative connections. Borrowed euphemisms appear in a language as a result of linguistic and cultural contacts with representatives of other peoples, for example Negro, der Facility-Manager, der Hairstylist Periphrase This method is a euphemization of a concept by explaining its meaning: Personen mit Psychiatrieerfahrung Also, euphemisms can be formed using word-formation means (affixation, compounding, merging, conversion, truncation of stems, etc.). For example, Sozialschwache (composition), Nachrichtensprecherin (suffixation), Vorsenioren (prefixation). Some euphemisms are abbreviations (literal, syllabic or mixed). For example, das HwG-Mädchen (letter abbreviation). \
Lexical means of forming euphemisms: 1) Determining words with diffuse semantics: some,
famous,
definite,
corresponding,
proper
and so on.: “These government actions have already led to
known results»
- meaning bad, negative results; "A certain contact
was between our services, but everyone remained alive"; “People are driving in Mercedes, I would say
with peculiar faces»
; 2) Nouns with a fairly general meaning, used to name very specific objects and actions: promotion,
product,
an object,
product(about the “stuffing” for atomic bombs), product
(about drugs) material(meaning “compromising information about someone”), signal
(meaning “reporting something unfavorable to higher authorities”); 3) Indefinite or demonstrative pronouns, as well as pronominal phrases like this business,
one place: - At your place
anything
was it with Tolya? - No, what are you talking about! He and I have
Nothing
did not have(meaning sexual relations); title of a television program about sex - "About
This»
; I need to
one place(=to the toilet); 4) Foreign words and terms used as designations are more suitable - due to their less intelligibility to most native speakers - for veiling the essence of a phenomenon than native vocabulary: cancer(cancer), pediculosis(lice), liberalization
prices, celadon(womanizer), destructive
(destructive), confrontation
(confrontation), etc.; 5) Words denoting the incompleteness of an action or a weak degree of a property, used not in their dictionary meaning, but as a euphemism: underscored shat (about a deaf person), limp(about the lame one) suspend(stop, cease activities), etc.; 6) Abbreviations, especially characteristic of the repressive sphere and areas associated with concealing military and state secrets: VM
= capital punishment (punishment), i.e. execution, SS
= top secret (a stamp on documents; in professional usage such a stamp was called "two Semyons"), prisoner,
in a later writing - convict(from the phrase prisoner canal soldier - the abbreviation arose during the construction of the White Sea-Baltic Canal). 2 Political correctness as one of the motives for using euphemisms 2.1The concept of political correctness The very concept of political correctness is quite multifaceted and is understood ambiguously. For example, N.G. Komlev in the “Dictionary of Foreign Words” gives the following definition: “Political correctness, political correctness is a concept established in the United States - a slogan demonstrating the liberal orientation of modern American politics. Political correctness deals not so much with content as with symbolic images and adjustments to the language code. The speech is decorated with signs of anti-racism, environmentalism, tolerant attitude towards national and sexual minorities, and the fight against AIDS. Tolerance is manifested in softened terms (for example, instead of “blacks” - “African Americans”, instead of “disabled” - “those in need of physical support”) S.G. Ter-Minasova believes that “political correctness of language is expressed in the desire to find new ways of linguistic expression instead of those that hurt the feelings and dignity of the individual, infringes on his human rights by habitual linguistic tactlessness and/or straightforwardness in relation to race and gender, age, health status, social status, appearance, etc.” . Along with this, S.G. Ter-Minasova believes that the phrase political correctness is unsuccessful, proposing to replace it with the more appropriate term “linguistic tact.” Foreign authors focus on the fact that the phenomenon of political correctness arose and spread on the territory of American colleges and universities, thanks to the ethnic, racial and cultural diversity of the student body. In the preface to the book “Are You Politically Correct?” F. Beckwith and M. Bauman write that political correctness is “a network of interconnected ideological views that question the foundations of university education: the traditional curriculum, views on the objectivity of the knowledge acquired, attaching importance to cultural, gender, class and racial differences.” Politically correct ideas are often expressed in a more relaxed form. It is for this reason that one of the most effective means of expressing politically correct vocabulary is euphemism. I. Radchenko says: “political correctness is a general name for the euphemization of speech in certain, particularly sensitive topics.” As already noted, political euphemisms represent a special group of euphemisms and can be considered within the framework of the general phenomenon of euphemism. Consequently, if euphemisms arise to replace taboo words, then it can be assumed that political euphemisms are directly related to the existence of political taboos. Subject-conceptual spheres of political taboos In brackets are the original names of the “subject areas” of the use of euphemisms according to R. Holder’s dictionary of euphemisms with translation into Russian: Titles related to the field of politics; Names related to the military sphere; Names of concepts related to poverty; Names of mental and physical disabilities of a person; Titles related to the field of education; Names related to the field of ethnic, age, gender, differences; Names of human vices; Having analyzed the resulting list of subject-conceptual spheres of political taboos, we can conclude that a minority of political taboos cover areas of names directly related to the foreign policy of the state (international relations, military sphere). A larger number of areas of prohibitions relate to domestic politics, that is, to what is in one way or another connected with society and public relations - these are names in the field of education, business, names of ethnic, age, gender differences, names of the concept of poverty , some professions, etc. Thus, taking into account the scope of political taboos and the fact that a recognized feature of political euphemisms is their use in texts of political communication, we can give the following definition of political taboos: political taboos are words and expressions undesirable for use in political communication that can cause a negative reaction or offend the feelings of any groups of the population or even the nation as a whole. Appearing at the next stage of development of human civilization, they are socially conditioned, their number in a particular language and the necessity of replacement depend on the historical period, cultural characteristics, political regime, etc. 2.2 Media and euphemism It makes sense here to mention the influence of the media in the political world. During election campaigns, the media use their main functions, such as: Information function, which is the most important function of the media. It consists of obtaining and disseminating information about the most important events for citizens and authorities. The information obtained and transmitted by the mass media includes not only impartial, photographic coverage of certain facts from the political and personal life of a presidential candidate, but also their commentary and assessment; Ideological function (socially orienting), associated with the desire to have a profound influence on the ideological foundations and value orientations of the audience, on people’s self-awareness, their ideals and aspirations, including the motivation of behavioral acts; The manipulative-managerial function is the most important, since the media influence the nature of our values, change attitudes, behavior patterns and perceptions of reality. They form myths and stereotypes. Today, a person’s consciousness is sometimes unable to resist such manipulation, as a result of which he becomes the object of information aggression and agitation. The media persuades or tries to persuade a citizen to side with a particular future political leader. In the print media, almost all political actions today are carried out with the help of political manipulative discourse, the purpose of which is primarily the struggle for power, its distribution and use to control the masses. Over time, the methods of communicative influence on the addressee have changed in many ways, and this is especially pronounced in political discourse. Modern approaches to manipulation make it possible for all kinds of necessary manipulative pictures of the world to appear in the recipient’s mind. If we talk specifically about how political speech is formed (especially if it is presented to the masses), then we can identify a number of features that characterize it. Firstly, there is never any talk about the means of implementing certain social programs. An experienced politician will always call for goals, he will talk about how good it will be for everyone if he is elected or supported in terms of implementing programs and ideas. It is always easy to catch an ordinary person describing such colorful pictures of the future. The illusion has been created, the words have had an effect, but the means are kept silent. Secondly, the politician’s speech is prepared in advance. And it is really simple in its content, easy for members of society to understand. As mentioned above, speech is created in such a way that it is freed from political terminology and professionalism for the best perception by the addressee and, accordingly, creating the most effective basis for introducing consumer ideas and various kinds of illusions into the recipient’s consciousness. In this case, the image of a politician plays an important role, namely how he positions himself in front of a group of people. One of the manipulative strategies in this situation is to create the image of “I’m like everyone else, like ordinary people.” Perhaps this is why political discourse is currently being simplified in terms of linguistic means; Politicians even allow themselves to use jargon in their speech, and in general they use the most commonly used vocabulary. Among the extralinguistic elements in this type of discourse, it can be noted, for example, that politicians (in order to be closer to the people) try to dress more simply, to look more natural, “like everyone else.” Thirdly, by analyzing political discourse, it is possible to identify strategies whose main “impact” falls on the feelings of the addressee. Consider the following slogan: “Are you a citizen of your country? Then you have the right to choose your destiny. Vote!..” If we explicate the real meaning hidden behind such seemingly logically unrelated words, we can deduce the following: “If you don’t vote, you are not a citizen of your country and you are not responsible for your destiny.” In the minds of the addressee, everything is interpreted exactly this way, as a result of which an internal conflict arises, a struggle, the victory of which, as a rule, is won by a manipulative move, strategy, and not common sense. If we consider political discourse from the point of view of linguistics, we can note the presence of political euphemism in media texts. Recently, there has been a tendency not to limit political discourse to the framework of professionalism and to make it accessible to every representative of society. Like “euphemism” itself, “political euphemism” has several definitions, which indicate the features that distinguish it from other euphemisms: functioning in texts of political communication with the aim of hiding the unpleasant aspects of reality by softening and distorting the meaning of the fact being described. However, the use of political euphemism is due to several factors: a number of legal restrictions on the use of linguistic means of expressing direct negative assessment in texts of political communication; compliance with the rules of cultural correctness in modern society; greater effectiveness of influencing the audience with an implicit (hidden) method of transmitting information. Thus, the target feature of political communication texts is to influence the political views, thinking, and behavior of people in society. In the minds of people there are a number of certain beliefs of political myths that can be activated in order to influence the audience. Political euphemisms are used in political communication texts in order to soften the negative associations associated with certain facts, often by distorting the meaning of the fact being described. Political euphemisms are part of the general dictionary of euphemisms; the areas of their use in the language are related to the meaning of the term “political”: state power, social life, social issues, public actions of politicians and officials. The determining factor in the emergence of political euphemisms The motives for political euphemization are different: social, legal, The texts of political communication create the prerequisites for With the help of political euphemisms in the texts of political communication, a targeted influence on the addressee of political communication can be carried out. It is carried out by changing the assessment of certain phenomena, events, a total replacement of concepts in some areas of life and is aimed at changing the worldview, ideological, political, moral attitudes of the individual, that is, it is ideological in nature. Conclusion As a result of the study, we assumed that when creating and using old and new euphemisms in speech, representatives of German-speaking cultures are guided not only by its values, but also by the provisions of the universal theory of politeness, which operates with the concepts of positive and negative face. It was the desire to maintain a positive face that became one of the reasons for the emergence and consolidation in German-speaking cultures of euphemisms belonging to the second or new sphere of euphemism, that is, politically correct words and expressions. Although political correctness is somewhat at odds with German-speaking cultures' values of honesty and directness, it is a fairly powerful means of social control that can force speakers of this culture to suppress verbal aggression and use non-aggressive words and expressions in their speech. Thus, we believe that one of the means of countering verbal aggression and maintaining a positive face of the interlocutor is political correctness, implemented within the framework of politeness strategies. A correctly chosen euphemism can resolve an emerging communication conflict. This issue is becoming increasingly relevant in an era of widespread intercultural interaction and inevitably associated intercultural conflicts. So, euphemisms, being not only a linguistic, but also a cultural phenomenon, are a reflection of the values of modern German-speaking cultures. Based on some outdated euphemisms and comparing them with new ones, we can trace changes in the very value systems of the cultures under consideration, which, in turn, allow us to consider political correctness as its new value and guideline in speech behavior, as well as as a means of adhering to a polite strategy behavior and avoidance of verbal aggression that can turn into a communicative conflict. The study of euphemisms, methods and reasons for their formation, of course, can be considered one of the promising areas in modern linguistics. An additional area of research could be a comparative analysis of euphemisms and methods of their formation in Russian and German. In light of the fact that until now in Russian lexicography there is no tradition of compiling a dictionary of euphemisms, this goal seems all the more relevant. In addition, continuing the study of euphemisms not only in linguistic, but also in sociocultural contexts, using methods of cultural studies and sociology, will likely add new data to the theory of linguistics and intercultural communication. In conclusion, it must be said that euphemisms are not only a characteristic, but also a “legitimate” means of linguistic expression, which has a clear normative status: they are used when (in those situations and contexts) when the linguistic taste of the speakers, their idea of moral and ethical values dictate They need to replace direct nominations with indirect ones. At the same time, euphemisms can serve as an indicator of certain stereotypes that exist in a given society at a given time: very often what is called directly in some social conditions, in other, changed conditions and in another era, requires euphemistic designations. List of sources used Euphemism is the replacement of rude, indecent or inappropriate expressions in a given context with neutral words or phrases. The term is based on the ancient Greek word ευφήμη - piety. I have right now "those days"– i.e. period. He came home already "ready"– i.e. drunk. Of course we "thanked" Ivan Ivanovich - i.e. gave a bribe. In almost any work of art you can find euphemism. In the famous novel Crime and Punishment, written by Fyodor Dostoevsky, Rodion Raskolnikov replaces the word “murder” with euphemisms "This"
or "case"
. Am I capable of this? What business do I want to encroach on and at the same time what trifles am I afraid of? Religion and superstition Superstitions are widespread in risky professions, which leads to the emergence of such a phenomenon as “euphemism words.” Thus, among pilots and cosmonauts it is not customary to say “last”; instead, the euphemism is used "extreme". According to popular beliefs, saying the name of evil spirits out loud means summoning them, so euphemisms were used instead of the words “devil”, “demon” or “devil” "sly", "horned" etc. Official documents The language of official documents has a neutral tone, so they often contain euphemisms. For example, they can be used to designate a social group: "People with special educational needs" "People with developmental delays" Speech manipulation Also, euphemism phrases can be used for verbal manipulation and smoothing out reality: "No positive results" "Complete failure" "All Quiet on the Western Front" "We are retreating" Everyday speech Euphemisms in Russian are often used to replace swear words: “Send in three letters” “Fuck you!” “Get off to the garden!” "Blya-fly" "Japanese Policeman" Euphemisms are used to refer to physiological processes that are not usually discussed in public. When warning her interlocutor about her intention to go to the toilet, a woman can say: “I’ll go powder my nose.” The abundance of euphemisms leads to speech redundancy. They can also make the reader feel like the author is trying to avoid the problem. Dysphemism- a rude or obscene expression that is used instead of a neutral one. Dysphemism is the opposite in meaning to euphemism. For example, if instead of “die” you say "leave us"
or “go to a better world” is a euphemism, but if "die"
or "get over"
- this is dysphemism. Eschrofemism is a figure of speech that implies that of all the meanings of a polysemantic word, only negative or indecent ones are taken into account. For example, some have the word "sit down"
is associated only with imprisonment, so they try to avoid it in other meanings, using the euphemism "to sit down." Eschrophemism is one of the prerequisites for using euphemism. The term “eschrophemism” was introduced into scientific circulation by philologist Hasan Huseynov and has not yet received widespread use.Reflections on Russian word: let not a rotten word come out of your mouth
Article >> Linguistics, philologyCourse work
Euphemisms: methods of education and translation
research material can be used in lecture courses and
special courses in lexicology, phraseology, for writing term papers, as well as in the practice of studying the German language.
general atmosphere of time, place, company.
impression, to do something pleasant or simply not to offend the interlocutor.
tragic news.
other features;
- Names related to the field of economics and business;
- Names related to the criminal sphere;
is the need to replace words that are political taboos.
communicative.
the widespread use of political euphemisms, as they help maintain a balance between two opposing trends: the implementation of the pragmatic orientation of political communication texts towards propaganda and persuasion and compliance with the rules of legal and cultural correctness that exist in modern society.
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problems of lexicography of scientific research. - 2000. - Part 2. -
pp. 126-135.
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Russian language // Linguistic personality: sociolinguistic and emotive aspects. - Volgograd, Saratov, 1998. - P. 160-168.
Examples
Euphemism. Examples from literature
Use of euphemism
IMPORTANT!
Some euphemisms change meaning over time and can even become obscenities. For example, a neutral word "horseradish" in a certain context it sounds obscene.Similar terms