What were weapons made of in the Egyptian army? Army in ancient Egypt. Army and Pharaoh
The Egyptian army was organized in the form of military settlements located in the most threatened areas: the lower Nile had the largest number of military settlements, since attacks from neighboring Asian states could be expected here; in Upper Egypt there were fewer military settlements, since the Ethiopians were not a serious enemy due to their fragmentation. Moreover, the conquered Nubian tribes living along the banks of the Nile were obliged to supply Egypt with a certain number of soldiers for internal “police” service.
During large campaigns, the pharaohs strengthened their army at the expense of conquered neighboring tribes.
The army of the Old Kingdom (3200-2400 BC) was staffed by warriors who had land plots, and partly by attracting black mercenaries. Permanent detachments of warriors were in the service of the pharaoh and large temples. For the campaigns, the army was gathered from Upper and Lower Egypt and from African countries. The pharaohs usually took one warrior from every 100 male population. Thus, the army numbered several tens of thousands of people.
The warriors of the Old Kingdom were armed with: a mace with a stone tip, a battle ax made of copper, a spear with a stone tip, and a battle dagger made of stone or copper. In an earlier period, the boomerang was widely used. The main weapons were a bow and a battle ax. As a defensive weapon, the warriors had a wooden shield covered with leather.
The army consisted of detachments. Sources that have reached us say that the soldiers were engaged in combat training, which was in charge of a special head of military training. Already during the period of the Old Kingdom, the Egyptians used formation in ranks. All the soldiers in the ranks had the same weapons.
Fortresses of the Old Kingdom period had various shapes (circle, oval or rectangle). The fortress walls sometimes had round towers in the shape of a truncated cone with a platform at the top and a parapet. Thus, the fortress near the city of Abydos was built in the shape of a rectangle; the length of its larger and smaller sides reached 125 and 68 meters, respectively, the height of the walls was 7-11 meters, and the thickness in the upper part was 2 meters. The fortress had one main and two additional entrances. The fortresses in Semne and Kumme were already complex defensive structures that had ledges, walls and a tower.
When storming fortresses, the Egyptians used assault ladders with wooden disc wheels, which made them easier to install and move along the fortress wall. The breach in the fortress walls was made with large crowbars. This is how technology and methods of storming fortresses were born.
The army of the Middle Kingdom (2200-1700 BC) was not much different from the army of the Old Kingdom. However, the weapons of the Egyptian warriors of the Middle Kingdom improved somewhat compared to the previous period, as metal processing became more advanced. Spears and arrows now had bronze tips. Impact weapons remained the same: a battle axe, a spear up to 2 meters long, a mace and a dagger. A spear, a boomerang, a sling with stones, and a bow were used as throwing weapons. A reinforced bow appeared, which increased the range of the arrow and its accuracy. The arrows had tips of various shapes and feathers; their length ranged from 55 to 100 centimeters. Arrows with a leaf-shaped tip, common in the Ancient East, initially flint, and then copper and bronze, were less effective weapons than the arrows with a faceted tip - bone or bronze, introduced by the Scythians in the second quarter of the 1st millennium BC. A aimed shot from a bow was effective at a distance of 150-180 meters; the best accuracy of the boomerang and throwing javelin was achieved at a distance of 50 meters. A shield covered in leather, half the height of a man, continued to be the only protective equipment.
During the Middle Kingdom, the organization of the army was improved. The units now had a certain number: 6, 40, 60, 100, 400, 600 soldiers. The detachments numbered 2, 3,10 thousand soldiers. Units of uniformly armed warriors appeared - spearmen and archers, who had a formation order for movement; They moved in a column of four soldiers in a row along the front and ten ranks deep.
There is evidence of incentives for ordinary soldiers for their length of service: they were allocated small plots of land. Military leaders were promoted for their merits, received land, livestock, slaves, or were awarded “Golden Praise” (like an order) and decorated military weapons.
The pharaohs of the Middle Kingdom paid great attention to securing the borders of Egypt. Systems of defensive structures appeared. So, for example, to protect southern border Three lines of fortresses were built. The fortresses became more advanced: they now had battlements that covered the defending soldiers; protruding towers for shelling the approaches to the wall; a ditch that made it difficult to approach the wall. The fortress gates were protected by towers. Small exits were arranged for forays. Much attention was paid to supplying the fortress garrison with water: wells or hidden exits to the river were built.
Of the surviving remains of ancient Egyptian fortresses from this period, the most characteristic is the fortress at Mirgissa, built in the shape of a rectangle. This fortress had an internal wall 10 meters high with protruding towers located at a distance of 30 meters from each other, and a moat 8 meters wide. 25 meters from the inner wall there was an outer wall that surrounded the fortress on three sides; on the fourth side the cliff dropped steeply towards the river. The outer wall was surrounded by a 36 meter wide moat. In addition, forward walls were built on rocky ledges, adjacent to the corners of the fortress and making it possible to control the approaches from the river. Two other walls protected the main entrance to the fortress.
The pharaohs and their military leaders undertook numerous campaigns in Nubia, Syria and other countries with the aim of plundering them.
During the New Kingdom period (starting from 1560 BC), most of the soldiers of the Egyptian army were armed with swords, and the bow played a significant role in battle. Protective weapons were improved: in addition to the shield, the warrior also had a helmet and a leather armor with attached bronze plates. An important part of the army were war chariots. The chariot was a wooden platform measuring 1 x 0.5 meters on two wheels, to which a drawbar was tightly attached. The front part and sides of the chariot were covered with leather, which protected the legs of the combat crew, which consisted of a driver and one fighter, from arrows. Two horses were harnessed to the chariot.
The most ancient branch of Egyptian troops was the infantry. It constituted the main force of the Egyptian army. After the introduction of uniform weapons, the Egyptian infantry consisted of archers, slingers, spearmen, and warriors with swords. The presence of equally armed infantry raised the question of the order of its formation. An infantry formation appeared, its movements became rhythmic, which is strikingly evident in all images of Egyptian warriors of the New Kingdom period.
Among the equipment, we should note a special shield to protect the abdomen, which was made up of brightly colored pieces of leather sewn on top of each other, and a shirt-like robe trimmed with leather strips. A striped cap with metal protrusions or something like a helmet made of striped leather was put on a smoothly shaved head (Fig. on p. 42). This helmet also protected the back of the head and was sometimes worn over an ordinary cap.
The warriors had shields that were angular at the bottom, rounded at the top and equipped with a window for observation.
During the campaign, the Egyptian army was divided into several detachments that moved in columns. Reconnaissance was always sent ahead. When stopping, the Egyptians set up a fortified camp of shields. When storming cities, they used a formation called a turtle (a canopy of shields that covered the soldiers from above), a ram, a vine (a low canopy of vines covered with turf to protect soldiers during siege work) and an assault ladder.
A special body was in charge of supplying the troops. Products were issued from warehouses according to certain standards. There were special workshops for the manufacture and repair of weapons.
The Egyptian pharaohs had warships that were equipped with sails and a large number of oars. The bow of the ship was adapted for boarding and ramming an enemy ship.
The battle of Ramses III (about 1200 BC) at Migdal is known, which is interesting due to the interaction of the Egyptian fleet and ground forces. The battle formation of the ground forces on the right flank was covered by fortifications, and on the left it was supported by the fleet. The fleet of the Philistines (a people living on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea) and their allies was defeated by the Egyptian fleet, after which the Philistine land army fled.
In the Egyptian army one can see the beginnings of the organizational forms of the army and battle formations, which consisted of the thoughtful placement of chariots, squads of archers, spearmen and others on the battlefield. The battle was started by war chariots, followed by infantry; the third line again consisted of war chariots, serving as combat support.
Thus, combat practice gradually developed certain rules of warfare and combat, placing its own demands on the troops and command.
To be continued..
Prerequisites for the creation of a standing army
The army in Ancient Egypt has come a long way in development. This is due to the fact that the Egyptians were not a warlike people. They are, first of all, peaceful farmers.
During the period of the Old Kingdom, the state could not have a single standing army, since there was no unity in the state itself. Egypt consisted of separate independent regions - nomes. The fragmented state was constantly in a state of danger, while each individual nome had its own armed detachment - the militia. Such a detachment, as a rule, was led by a civilian official who did not have special military training. There was no special officer class. Large temple estates could also have similar detachments.
In the event of war - an attack on the borders of the state by hostile tribes, each nome supplied its troops to the combined army. Command was most often entrusted to some capable official. War was not a special occupation for the Egyptians. Military operations were reduced to the defense of borders or to predatory raids on neighboring tribes. Individual nome or temple military detachments could take part in such expeditions. Naturally, the spoils were concentrated in the hands of the nomarchs and the priesthood, whose influence was steadily growing and the pharaohs, not having their own military strength, had to put up with this.
However, already at the beginning of the Middle Kingdom, the pharaohs tried to surround themselves with people devoted and loyal. Many officials are chosen from the ruler's inner circle. A class of the pharaoh's military retinue, his guards, emerges. These units consisted of professional soldiers stationed in groups of 100 in palaces and fortresses throughout Egypt from Nubia to the borders of Asia. They formed the core standing army, although they were still very small at that time, and their main task was to protect the ruler. Their bosses were of upper middle class origin.
During the war, the army, as before, consisted of detachments of different nomes, led by nomarchs. In peacetime, these people were involved in public works, that is, there were almost no professional soldiers, since the entire war boiled down to a series of poorly organized predatory raids, which indicates the non-militant mood of the Egyptians.
During the Middle Kingdom, Egyptian rulers were no longer content with periodic raids on neighboring tribes. They strive not only to seize these territories, but also to retain them in order to obtain a permanent income. Border fortresses guarded by garrisons were supposed to control the occupied territories. The first fortresses in Nubia and Kush were built by the legendary Senusret III, with whom the first foreign conquests of the Egyptians are associated. But it was impossible to protect the borders without a standing army. But war was still not a special activity in Egypt. Only after the fall of the Middle Kingdom and almost 100 years of domination of the nomadic Asian tribes - the Hyksos, did the Egyptians learn to fight for real. The expulsion of the Hyksos and the desire of the pharaoh to retain power in his hands became an important stage in the formation of a permanent Egyptian army.
The regular army was finally formed by Pharaoh Ahmose I, the founder of the Egyptian Empire during the New Kingdom. Thanks to long wars and sieges, Egypt became military power. Confrontation with the Hyksos and campaigns in Asia allowed the Egyptians to study military science. During this period, the “profession” of a warrior became the most in demand. Having realized what wealth could be gained through war, the once unwarlike Egyptians now sought to join the army. Administrative officials now became military leaders. Military affairs became prestigious.
So, we can conclude that the prerequisites for the creation of a standing army in Ancient Egypt were initially the pharaoh’s desire to ensure his safety, surround himself with loyal people and reduce the influence of the nomarchs. Later, realizing that it was much more profitable to regularly receive tribute from conquered territories than to periodically, through poorly organized raids, capture necessary resources, the pharaohs gradually formed more or less permanent military detachments and garrisons to guard the borders.
But the main reason for the emergence of a regular army is the Egyptians’ desire for wealth and luxury through military conquests, which were formed among a non-warlike people during the period of liberation struggle against the Hyksos (XVII-XVI centuries BC), warlike customs that taught the Egyptians differently relate to the war.
Armament of an ancient Egyptian warrior. Combat tactics
The only branch of the permanent Egyptian army that began to take shape during the Middle Kingdom was the infantry. Later a fleet and detachments of charioteers appeared.
“The warriors of the Old Kingdom were armed with: a mace with a stone tip, a battle ax made of copper, a spear with a stone tip, a dagger made of stone or copper. In an earlier period, the boomerang was widely used. As a defensive weapon, the warriors had a wooden shield covered with fur.” “When storming fortresses, the Egyptians used assault ladders with wooden disc wheels, which made them easier to install and move along the fortress walls. They made holes in the fortress walls with large crowbars.” Already in the Old Kingdom, the Egyptians had rowing ships with sails. 2 fleets were created - one in Upper Egypt, and the other in Lower Egypt.
The armament of the Egyptian warriors of the Middle Kingdom improved somewhat compared to the previous period, as a result of improving metal processing methods. Spears and arrows were now made of bronze. “A reinforced bow appeared, which increased the range of the arrow and the accuracy of its hit. The arrows had tips of various shapes and plumage; their length ranged from 55 to 100 cm. Common for the Ancient East, arrows with a leaf-shaped tip, initially flint, and then copper and bronze, were less effective weapons than arrows with a faceted tip - bone or bronze, introduced by the Scythians in the 2nd quarter of the 7th century BC.A aimed shot from a bow, the flight distance of a boomerang and a throwing spear were approximately the same: 150-180 m; the best accuracy of a boomerang and a throwing spear was reached at a distance of 50 m. A fur-lined shield, half a man's height, continued to be the only protective equipment." In the Middle Kingdom, units of equally armed warriors appeared - spearmen and archers.
For a long time, weapons were not improved - there was no need for this. There were enough spears, swords and bows to pacify the neighboring wild tribes. Significant innovations appeared during the period of Hyksos rule. The Egyptians learned a lot from the warlike nomads - they mastered new methods of making weapons and improved the technology of making weapons from bronze. Another innovation also appears - now horses brought by nomads are harnessed to chariots, which subsequently helps them win a number of victories. Thus, we can say that the Egyptians drove out the Hyksos with the help of their own weapons.
With the advent of mercenaries, not only the composition of the army changes, but also its weapons. Most mercenaries, being professional warriors, prefer to use their own weapons. This means the emergence of a variety of weapons.
The basis of the Egyptian army was still infantry, consisting of detachments of archers, slingers, spearmen and warriors with swords. During the campaign, the army was divided into several detachments that moved in columns. Reconnaissance was sent ahead.
When stopping, the Egyptians set up a fortified camp of shields. “When storming cities, they used a formation called a turtle (a canopy of shields that covered the soldiers from above), a ram, a vine (a low canopy of vines covered with turf to protect soldiers during siege work) and an assault ladder.”
It is known that during campaigns, warriors were sometimes transferred to the battle site from their permanent locations on cargo river ships.
The Egyptians' combat tactics were quite varied. The battle was fought mainly on land, sometimes on water. There are cases when the battle was fought both at sea and on land at the same time. In battle, especially during the New Kingdom, charioteer units became widely used, but infantry was still more common.
The main prey of the Egyptians were slaves. Also highly valued were “trophies”—hands cut off from defeated enemies. The vanquished were mercilessly robbed - clothes, weapons, and other valuables were seized. The occupied territories were also treated barbarously.
Not all prisoners were used as additional labor, but almost exclusively Asians. Captured sea pirates - Sherdans - possibly from distant Sardinia - often became the royal bodyguards. Libyans and Ethiopians were recruited into the Egyptian army, probably at first only as auxiliary units.
Thus, we can conclude that before the Hyksos conquest, the warrior’s weapons were quite simple. It is improved with the arrival of nomads. Not only the arsenal of weapons becomes richer, but also the military experience of the Egyptians themselves. With the advent of horses and new types of weapons, combat tactics are also improved.
The position of the army in ancient Egyptian society
Initially, when the army was an army assembled from new detachments, there were no professional soldiers, and all able-bodied men were recruited into the militia. In peacetime, they were engaged in public works or equipped for expeditions.
Professional soldiers appeared already in the Middle Kingdom. Their task was to protect the pharaoh and the borders of the state. However, the profession of a soldier became truly necessary and in demand only during the New Kingdom.
The ranks of the soldiers were replenished mainly by representatives of the middle class, and officials who previously held administrative positions became military leaders. “The official who described the estates in the era of the XVIII dynasty divided the people into “soldiers, priests, royal serfs and all artisans,” and this classification is confirmed by everything that we know about the era; it should, however, be borne in mind that all divisions of the free middle class are included here among the "soldiers." The soldiers of the standing army, therefore, now also became a special class. Representatives of the free middle class obliged to perform military service are called "citizens of the army" - a term already known in the era of the Middle Kingdom, but which became common in this time; thus, conscription becomes a characteristic designation of the class of society bearing it."
The army and the servant class now become one of the 3 great social groups, along with the priesthood and officials.
Ordinary soldiers received very little pay, but they could gain wealth by plundering the vanquished. Being a military man was also beneficial because every soldier could have a career prospect. He could be noticed and awarded for valor and service. Of course, it was extremely rare for an ordinary soldier to achieve this. Most often, this was used by the militarized nobility. It is the military leaders who get the best of military campaigns. All the most valuable things were subject to a census and handed over to the pharaoh, who distributed the loot among military leaders and officials, sacrificing the lion's share to temples and priesthood.
A special role was played by the “escort soldiers” - the royal guard. For their service to the pharaoh, such warriors receive gifts from the ruler - land, slaves. In addition, they feed from the royal household. These warriors - bodyguards from among the selected army and a group of close military leaders - accompanied the pharaoh in all public appearances.
Unlike the elite, the common soldier had a hard time if he returned from a campaign without achieving glory. Representatives of this class suffered various oppressions from the ruling class. But they were free, and if they were lucky enough to get something during the campaign, they could dispose of it freely, including slaves.
At the end of the New Kingdom, when mercenaries began to predominate in the army, the warrior profession became unprofitable for the Egyptian. Egyptians prefer to return to agriculture and peaceful work. Anastasi, for example, claims that the profession of a scribe is much better than a warrior. In his papyrus, he describes the pitiful fate of the warrior and charioteer. He may be exaggerating in his reasoning, but there is undoubtedly some truth in his statements. However, despite all this, the power of the pharaoh still continues to be based on the strength of the army, so the army is a significant force and does not occupy the last place in society.
At the end of the period, the free and semi-dependent sections of the population were increasingly exploited by the elite of the nobility. A military career for the ordinary soldier is becoming even more inaccessible. If after the expulsion of the Hyksos and the formation of a new, XVIII, the advancing Theban house needed new loyal confidants and bestowed gifts, honors and titles on all those who really distinguished themselves in battle, now positions and titles became hereditary and families enriched due to these privileges passed on their titles by inheritance.
We can conclude that in general, the army occupied a significant place in ancient Egyptian society. During the era of the empire, the army and military affairs received the greatest development. The military is getting big social group along with the priesthood and officials. The army becomes the main support of the despotic power of the pharaoh.
The influence of a standing army on the socio-economic development of Ancient Egypt
With the advent of a standing army, the socio-economic situation in Egypt changed significantly. First of all, it has changed dramatically social structure society.
Military campaigns, international trade, and the recruitment of foreigners into the army led to the influx into the country of a huge number of both free and dependent foreigners. Conquests yielded a large number of slaves from all over the East, mainly Semites and Nubians.
Prisoners of war were exploited in various ways. Their labor was used in royal and temple farms, as well as in the farms of individual communities. Sherdens and Libyans could serve in the army. In general, foreigners could easily make a military career at court. “A brilliant career was open to the Asians in the army, although the lower ranks of the pharaoh’s troops were replenished mainly with recruits from among the western and southern peoples.” In addition, with the emergence of a regular army in ancient Egyptian society, a new class was formed - the military class. The role of the army in economic development the country was that now it was not the Egyptians who fought, but foreign mercenaries, not farmers, but professional warriors. Mostly slaves worked in the fields and farms. The Egyptians themselves were able to work quietly in their possessions, using the fruits of their conquests. “The warlike spirit that made Egypt the first world empire lasted only a few centuries, and the essentially non-warlike people returned to their usual peaceful life...” The standing army made it possible not only to conquer new territories, wealth, slaves, but also to hold new lands for empire. The army controlled these territories and guarded the borders of the state.
The influence of the standing army on the socio-economic development of Egypt is that:
1. Egypt is becoming a multinational power due to the large influx of foreigners into the country - mercenaries, slaves, traders.
2. Foreigners began to predominate in the standing army, which entailed the distraction of the Egyptians from military affairs. They had no need to fight themselves - professional soldiers did it for them. In other words, they became dependent on foreign mercenaries.
3. The country was able to develop economically thanks to a standing army that reliably defended the borders of the empire.
4. The country developed economically due to captured lands, slaves and other war booty. The Egyptian army has come a long way in development. Having initially appeared for the purpose of protecting the pharaoh and protecting borders, it, constantly improving, became the support of the despotic power of the kings. The armament of the Egyptian warrior was distinguished by its simplicity and convenience, which indicates the non-militant mood of the Egyptians. It was improved with the arrival of the Hyksos. After the expulsion of the nomads, the army continues to develop. Now she takes important place in ancient Egyptian society, and the warrior profession becomes in demand. The army supplied Egypt with conquered wealth, which made it increasingly powerful and allowed the country to develop economically.
The luxury that the nobility allowed themselves seemed nothing in comparison with the pomp with which the royal couple surrounded themselves. Pharaoh tried to prove that he was truly the son of the Sun. He and his wife wear a special bandage, around which a golden ureus is wrapped, and the head of a terrible snake is located just above the monarch’s forehead.
Uraeus, whose bite leads to inevitable death, was considered a symbol of unlimited power, and therefore not only the pharaoh’s headband, but also his crown, belt and helmet were decorated with his image. In general, the attire of the royal couple differed from the clothing of other nobility only in the high cost of the material. Their clothes were made mostly of the finest linen.
By the way, the autobiography of the courtier Xinde, written by him 2000 years BC, has reached us, where he praises the extraordinary quality of the canvas given to him by the pharaoh. In addition to linen, various materials made from wool and paper were used.
The armament of the king-pharaoh consisted of a leather helmet, decorated with ureus and ostrich feathers, usually blue, with a yellow bandage. The armor fit tightly to the torso and was made from colored belts or padded canvas. The king fought only on a chariot.
A lot of money was spent on all kinds of decorations and jewelry. Even men wore elegant bracelets made of precious metal on their hands - at the shoulder and at the wrist. And women put the same bracelets on their ankles, and put ring-shaped earrings in their ears.
The fingers were hung with rings, and every man was proud of some precious ring, on which they had worked a lot gemmaglyptics. Scarabs were especially common decorations. Scarab, the dung beetle, was considered a symbol of fertility and creativity because its eggs, enclosed in balls of earth, come to life under the influence of the sun's warmth.
Based on this, such bugs were worn by everyone and were made in abundance from lapis lazuli and other precious stones. Subsequently, when hieroglyphs began to be carved on the flat side of these jewelry, they acquired the character of amulets and were worn around the neck on a special cord.
As for the Assyrian and Egyptian warriors, the first ones were all tattooed. As Lucian says: "They all wear marks on their bodies in honor of the Syrian goddess."
Their armament consisted of armored shirts, which either covered the entire body and arms, or only reached the waist. They were made of canvas or leather and covered with metal plates. There were also shells lined with pieces of leather of different colors.
The infantrymen wore a crossed belt over a leather jacket, fastened at the front with a metal plaque. With a short armor, they wore narrow trousers covered with metal plaques, tied under the knee with a belt, and high laced boots.
The helmets were round and sometimes decorated with hair combs. Headphones were often attached to helmets. Large shields were made of wood and wicker and pointed at the top. Hand shields - round, recessed or flat, metal, wicker and wood.
The weapons were bows, which were placed in cases during movement, spears, swords and daggers. The hilt had the shape of a ball, oval, pear, etc., the quivers were finished with metals. The infantry were armed with spears, slings and double axes.
In contrast to the heavy weapons of the Assyrians, the Egyptians were light.
Those fighting on chariots wore leather helmets with metal trim, armor similar to the royal one, as well as crocodile skin jackets, etc.
Infantrymen wore short, narrow sleeveless tunics or tight-fitting skirts with an apron-like extension at the front, trimmed with leather strips.
The weapons were light metal and wooden bows with quivers hanging over the shoulder, spears, a short sword with a long handle, a short straight sword, daggers, axes, and slings. There were shields different shapes, is not at all round; they were almost always straight at the bottom and rounded at the top.
All power in the country was concentrated in the hands of one person - the pharaoh, the living God on earth, as the Egyptians considered him. Ancient Egypt was not an aggressive state, but wars occurred frequently, first internecine, then, after unification, defensive. And when the state gained strength, it began to carry out aggressive campaigns into neighboring territories.
For what purposes did the pharaohs maintain a large army?
- Firstly, this is, of course, defense. Constant raids from neighboring tribes were brutal and ravaged the lands.
- Secondly, this is a maximum increase in the number of slaves to cultivate the land. Carrying out raids on Nubia and Syria, the Egyptians drove away the inhabitants of these countries into slavery in droves.
- The third goal is to seize the sources of raw materials (metal, wood), so necessary for the development of the slave economy. To obtain the necessary raw materials, repeated sea expeditions were made to Phenicia and the island of Crete. For the purpose of robbery, campaigns were organized in Palestine and Nubia. This is the purpose for which the pharaohs maintained a large army. As you can see, it was simply impossible to do without him.
Pharaoh's army in the Old Kingdom
For the first time, a standing army began to form during this period. For their good service, soldiers received plots of land. The main part was the militia from the nomes of Egypt (regions). A minority were mercenaries (mainly Nubians). The initial equipment of the army was simple. The main weapon is a bow and arrow. Additional elements include maces, daggers and spears. The helmet was leather, also covered with this material. There were no divisions - all the soldiers belonged to the infantry. For the first time they also began to build fortifications.
Army of the Middle Kingdom
It is characterized by improved equipment. New bows helped increase the arrow's flight range to 180 meters. For the first time, chariots appear in equipment. The organization of the army improved, units with narrow specialization appeared, for example, archers, spearmen, and infantry with swords. Each detachment had a certain number of warriors - from 4 to 600 people. Each nome recruited volunteers from among young people who, after service, returned to civilian life. A significant part was still made up of mercenaries from Nubia. Pharaohs in Ancient Egypt participated in military campaigns, their chariot always led the army. The pharaoh dressed in special robes, an integral attribute of which was a blue headdress.
in the New Kingdom
At this time, the military became a separate class and took third place in the hierarchy along with the nobles, after the pharaoh and his viziers. Constant raids from militant neighbors required improved weapons, as a result of which straight and sickle-shaped swords appeared; the body of the warriors was protected by a leather shell with metal plates sewn onto it. A structure appeared, and some differed in their ammunition.
All weapons belonged to the state and were stored in special warehouses in peacetime, and only chariots were purchased by warriors at their own expense. The core of the army remained numerous infantry. The main striking force was the chariots - they made it possible to move faster and provide greater mobility and agility. As a rule, two people stood on the chariot - one drove it, and the second shot from a bow. The privilege of going into battle on a chariot was not granted to everyone, but only to those from the nobility; very often it was driven by young princes, the sons of the pharaoh.
Pharaoh's army moved on the campaign, divided into separate detachments. During long and exhausting stops, they set up camp. According to the organization of the Egyptian army, the battle began with chariots, they covered the rear, followed by infantry detachments.
Army and Pharaoh
Another answer to the question for what purposes the pharaohs maintained a large army is that there was a need for the pharaoh to protect himself. Rulers always rely first on the army. This is a means of enslaving and oppressing not only enemies, but often one’s own people. This is essential support during uprisings and riots. This was especially true for the Nubians, they were professionals and received money for it. But there is also a second side to the coin. The army is also a significant political force. And very often she not only defended the pharaohs, but also actively contributed to conspiracies and the overthrow of the ruler.
Heavy natural conditions, the need to build irrigation structures, cult and, as a consequence, the grandiose and costly construction of pyramids, defense from external enemies - all this explains the purposes for which the pharaohs maintained a large army. Slaves had to be taken somewhere; Egypt’s neighbors were best suited for this, and to capture, naturally, a permanent and professional large army was needed.
Of armor and weapons published in VO, I discovered that among them there is not a single one on the history of the weapons of Ancient Egypt. But this is the cradle of European culture, which has given humanity a lot. As for the periodization of its history, it is traditionally divided into the Old Kingdom (XXXII century - XXIV century BC), the Middle Kingdom (XXI century - XVIII century BC) and the New Kingdom (XVII century . - XI century BC) Before the Old Kingdom in Egypt there was the Predynastic period and then the Early Kingdom. After the New Kingdom there was also the Late Period, and then the Hellenistic Period, and between the Ancient, Middle and New Kingdoms, as a rule, there were also transition periods filled with turmoil and rebellion. Often at this time, Egypt was subjected to attacks from nomadic tribes and warlike neighbors, so its history was by no means peaceful and military affairs in Egypt, which means that offensive and defensive weapons were always held in high esteem!
Already in the era of the Old Kingdom - the era of the kings who built the pyramids in Egypt there was an army recruited from free peasants, individual units of which were armed with uniform weapons. That is, the army consisted of warriors with spears and shields, warriors with maces, small hatchets and daggers made of copper and bronze, and squads of archers with large bows, whose arrows were tipped with flint. The task of the army was to protect the borders and trade routes from attacks by the Libyans - the most significant among the tribes of the “Nine Bows” - the traditional enemies of Ancient Egypt, the Nubians in the south and the nomadic Bedouins in the East. During the reign of Pharaoh Snefru, the king's army captured 70,000 prisoners, which indirectly speaks of the number of Egyptian troops, the perfection of their tactics, and - their superiority in weapons!
Since it is very hot in Egypt, the ancient warriors did not have any special “military uniform” or protective clothing. All their clothing consisted of a traditional skirt, a wig made of sheep's wool, which played the role of a helmet, protecting the head from the stunning blow of a mace and a shield. The latter was made from bull skin with the hair facing out, which was apparently joined in several layers and stretched over a wooden frame. The shields were large, covering a person right up to the neck and pointed at the top, as well as slightly smaller ones, rounded at the top, which the warriors held by straps attached to the back.
The warriors lined up in a phalanx and moved towards the enemy, covering themselves with shields and putting out spears, and the archers were behind the infantrymen and shot over their heads. Similar tactics and approximately the same weapons among the peoples with whom the Egyptians fought at that time did not require any greater perfection of weapons - more disciplined and trained warriors won, and it is clear that these were, of course, the Egyptians.
At the end of the Middle Kingdom, the Egyptian infantry, as before, was traditionally divided into archers, warriors with short-range striking weapons (clubs, clubs, axes, axes, darts, spears) who did not have shields, warriors with axes and shields, and spearmen. This “branch of troops” had shields 60-80 cm long and about 40-50 cm wide, like, for example, the figurines of warriors discovered in the tomb of the nomarch Mesehti. That is, in the era of the Middle Kingdom, the Egyptians knew a deep formation of spearmen, covered with shields and built in several rows!
It is interesting that the Egyptian troops at this time consisted exclusively of infantry. The first case of the use of horses in Egypt was attested during excavations of the city of Buhen, a fortress on the border with Nubia. The find dates back to the era of the Middle Kingdom, but although horses were already known at that time, they were not widespread in Egypt. It can be assumed that a certain wealthy Egyptian purchased it somewhere in the East and brought it to Nubia, but it is unlikely that he used it as a means of draft.
As for the infantry archers, they were armed with the simplest bows, that is, made from one piece of wood. A compound bow (that is, assembled from different types of wood and covered with leather) would be too difficult for them to manufacture, and also expensive, to supply ordinary infantrymen with such a weapon. But one should not think that these bows were weak, because they had a length of 1.5 m or more, and in skillful hands they were very powerful and long-range weapons. English bows of the Middle Ages made of yew or maple, and 1.5 to 2 m long, were also simple, but they pierced steel armor at a distance of 100 m, and the English archer despised anyone who could not fire 10 - 12 arrows in a minute. True, there is one subtlety here. They did not shoot directly at the men-at-arms, or only shot at very close range. close range: Almost point blank! At a long distance they fired upward in volleys on command, so that the arrow fell on the knight from above and hit not so much himself as his horse. Hence the armor on top of the necks of knightly horses! So there is no doubt about the capabilities of Egyptian archers armed with bows of this size, and they could easily hit opponents not protected by metal armor at a distance of 75 - 100 m and up to 150 m under favorable conditions.
Ancient Egypt: weapons and armor of chariot warriors
Over its thousand-year history, Egypt has experienced not only ups, but also downs. So the era of the Middle Kingdom ended with the invasion of the Hyksos nomads, its defeat and a period of decline. What helped them cope with the Egyptians was that they fought on two-wheeled high-speed chariots drawn by a pair of horses, which gave their troops unprecedented maneuverability and mobility. But soon the Egyptians themselves learned to breed and train horses, make chariots and fight with them. The Hyksos were expelled, Egypt experienced a new rise, and its pharaohs, no longer content with protecting their borders and expeditions for gold in Nubia, began wars with their neighbors in Asia, and also tried to penetrate the territory of modern Syria and Lebanon.
Particularly warlike pharaohs of the era of the advent of the New Kingdom were representatives of the Ramesses dynasty. The armament of warriors at this time became even more deadly, as metal processing technology was improved, and in addition to chariots, the Egyptians also learned a reinforced bow, which increased the range of the arrow and its accuracy. The power of such bows was truly great: it is known that pharaohs such as Thutmose III and Amenhotep II pierced copper targets with arrows fired from them.
Already at a distance of 50 - 100 m, it was apparently possible to pierce the armor of a warrior on an enemy chariot with an arrow with a metal leaf-shaped tip. Bows were stored in special cases on the sides of the chariots - one on each (one spare) or one at the side closest to which the shooter stood. However, it has now become much more difficult to use them, especially while standing on a chariot and, moreover, in motion.
This is why the military organization of the Egyptian army also underwent major changes at this time. In addition to the traditional infantry - "mesha", charioteers - "netheter" appeared. They now represented the elite of the army; all their lives they studied military craft, which became hereditary for them and was passed on from father to son.
The first wars in Asia brought the Egyptians rich booty. So, after taking the city of Megiddo, they got: “340 prisoners, 2041 horses, 191 foals, 6 breeding horses, 2 war chariots decorated with gold, 922 ordinary war chariots, 1 bronze armor, 200 leather armor, 502 war bows, 7 tent pillars decorated with silver and belonging to the king of Kadesh, 1929 head of cattle, 2000 goats, 20,500 sheep and 207,300 bags of flour.” The vanquished recognized the authority of the ruler of Egypt over themselves, took an oath of allegiance and pledged to pay tribute.
It is interesting that in the list of captured armor there is only one bronze and 200 leather ones, which suggests that the presence of chariots also required increased protection for those who fought on them, since these were very valuable professional warriors whom it was a pity to lose. But the fact that there is only one metal shell speaks of the extremely high cost of the protective weapons of that time, which only the princes and pharaohs of Egypt possessed.
The many chariots taken as trophies clearly indicate their wide distribution, not only among Asians, but also among the Egyptians themselves. Egyptian chariots, judging by the images and artifacts that have come down to us, are light carts for two people, one of whom drove the horses, and the other fired at the enemy with a bow. The wheels had wooden rims and six spokes, the bottom was wicker, with a very minimum of wooden guards. This allowed them to develop greater speed, and the supply of arrows in two quivers allowed them to conduct a long battle.
In the Battle of Kadesh - the largest battle between the troops of Egypt and the Hittite kingdom in 1274 BC. - thousands of chariots took part on both sides, and although it actually ended in a draw, there is no doubt that it was the chariots that played a very important role in it. But in addition to new bows, the Egyptians also had two new types of long daggers - with a massive leaf-shaped blade with an edge in the middle, and a blade rounded at the end, and piercing-cutting ones - with elegant, long blades with parallel blades that smoothly turned into an edge, and also with a convex rib. The handle of both was very comfortable, with two cone-shaped bells - up - the pommel and down - the crosshair.
Sickle-shaped (sometimes double-edged) bladed weapons, borrowed by the Egyptians from their enemies in Palestine and undergoing a number of modifications in Egypt - “khopesh” (“khepesh”), were also widely used, like maces, axes with a narrow blade and moon-shaped axes.
This is what the infantry of Ancient Egypt, including the Ancient and Middle Kingdoms, might have looked like. In the foreground are two warrior-spearmen in headscarves, with printed protective aprons in the shape of a heart on top of a regular apron, possibly in quilted jackets, with sickle-shaped short swords made of bronze, and then warriors with a war club combined with an ax and an ax with a moon-shaped blade. The dart thrower has no defensive weapons at all. Two black warriors with bows in their hands are mercenaries from Nubia. Only one pharaoh has armor on his body, next to whom stands a signalman with a drum. Box of a set of soldiers from the Zvezda company. Oh, what we don’t have for boys now! And what kind of soldiers I had in childhood - heaven and earth!
Narmer palette. Depicts Pharaoh Narmer with a mace in his hands. (Cairo Museum)
Reconstruction of a New Kingdom chariot. (Römer-Pelitzeus Museum. Lower Saxony, Hildesheim, Germany)
Surprisingly, the ancient Egyptians knew and used boomerangs very similar to those used and used by the indigenous people of Australia. These two boomerangs from the tomb of Pharaoh Tutankhamun are very similar to the Australian ones and differ from them only in their decoration! (Egyptian Museum, Cairo)
Pharaoh Tutankhamun on a chariot. Painting on wood, length 43 cm. (Egyptian Museum, Cairo)
Golden dagger of Pharaoh Tutankhamun. (Egyptian Museum, Cairo)
Pharaoh on a chariot. Wall painting at the Abu Simbel Temple.
Relief from the mortuary temple of Queen Hatshepsut depicting Egyptian soldiers of the 18th dynasty, 1475 BC. e. Limestone, painting. (Egyptian Museum Berlin)