Ceramics. Main types of ceramics. Making ceramics with your own hands is a hobby for refined natures. How ceramic products are coated.

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RF

FEDERAL STATE BUDGET EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION OF HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION

"ST. PETERSBURG STATE UNIVERSITY

TECHNOLOGY AND DESIGN"

Department of History and Theory of Arts

TEST

in the discipline “History of Ceramics” on the topic:

"Ceramics. Main types of ceramics"

Performed:

Student of group 1-DZ-41

Direction of training 073900. 62

"Theory and History of Art"

Polityko Tatyana Andreevna

St. Petersburg - 2013

1. Introduction

Infertile soil, when wet, turns into a homogeneous liquid composition, and after drying it becomes dust - a seemingly completely useless and unnecessary material. But, fortunately, thousands of years ago man learned the unique properties of perhaps the most common earthly rock - clay.

The oldest object made of baked clay dates back to 29-25 millennia BC. This is the Vestonica Venus<#"justify">-study the theory on the topic “Ceramics. Main types of ceramics";

-analyze the information received;

Draw conclusions.

The topic I have chosen has been and will be relevant as long as ceramics, its creators, researchers and connoisseurs exist.

2. Ceramics

2.1 Etymology

The word “ceramics” originates in Greece: the ancient Greek words “keramos”, which means “clay”, as well as “keramike” - pottery art, combine to give us this term. Its general meaning implies any clay product that has been subjected to heat treatment, most often fired.

2.2 Appearance

Since time immemorial, people have sculpted from clay objects necessary for everyday life, especially dishes. There’s just one problem: dishes made from unfired clay are very fragile and are also afraid of moisture. Only dry foods could be stored in such containers. While raking up the ashes of a dying fire, the ancient man more than once noticed that the clay soil in the place where the fire burned became hard as stone and was not washed away by rain. Perhaps it was this observation that prompted a person to burn dishes in a fire.

Be that as it may, clay baked in a fire was the first artificial material in the history of mankind, which later received the name ceramics.

Like other similar discoveries, ceramics is not the invention of any one people - it was mastered independently of each other in different parts of the earth, but this does not exclude further interaction.

The forms of dishes developed in accordance with the needs of everyday life and the artistic traditions of peoples. For example, the transition to a sedentary lifestyle required vessels with a flat bottom, adapted to a flat oven hearth and table. Each nation at different times had its own favorite forms of vessels, the location and nature of the ornaments, methods of surface treatment, which was left with the natural texture and color of clay or polished, changed color by restorative firing, painted, covered with engobe<#"justify">2.3 Basic Tools

A modern potter has a lot of different tools in his arsenal. (ill. No. 5)

One of the main tools is stacks, which are sometimes called "long fingers". Stacks are designed for the smallest jobs when finishing the internal and external surfaces of ceramic products.

The surface is processed with wooden or bone knives and scrapers. Almost all craftsmen use ordinary river pebbles in their work, with the help of which the walls of vessels are not only leveled, but also polished. To decorate ceramics, metal and wooden sticks, brushes, pipettes, airbrushes, and other special devices are used.

In addition to all of the above, the most necessary and common are templates, clubs, mallets, string, spoons, rolling pins, various knives (both ordinary and special pottery), compasses and calipers, etc.

It should be noted that the master still makes most of the tools for processing and decorating vessels himself. Including the largest, most difficult to create: a potter's wheel and a forge.

2.3.1 Potter's wheel

When talking about ceramics, it is impossible to ignore one of its most important tools - the potter's wheel. This simple device was invented about 7 thousand years ago and has remained virtually unchanged since then.

The first hand circles appeared in Ancient Mesopotamia in the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates among the Sumerians in the 4th millennium BC. Around the same time, it began to be used in Iran and India. In European lands it became known quite late, only around 500 BC.

Its very first and simplest forms were round wooden disc platforms on a vertical rod rotating in a hollowed out block. They were intended to support the clay during molding and were rotated by hand. This allowed potters to dramatically increase labor productivity, significantly improve quality and increase the variety of products.

The prototype of the first pottery wheels were probably flat stands in the form of a plant leaf, a piece of mat, stone, etc., on which the products were turned during shaping and which did not allow wet clay to stick to the ground. Gradually, the design of the potter's wheel was improved. Already in the 3rd millennium BC. a simple turntable appeared, driven by hands. Later, mechanical ones appeared - with a “foot” design, and then technological progress introduced us to electric pottery wheels - such a device does not require physical effort, but requires a fairly high level of skill, since it has a high rotation speed.

2.3.2 Pottery forge

After the vessels were removed from the circle, they were fired. Before the advent of this device, heat treatment was carried out by fire or in an oven. But this had its drawbacks. And only firing in a special pottery forge, which allows one to reach a high temperature, ensured that the entire clay dough was completely calcined. Furnace-fired vessels are lighter in weight than those fired in a kiln, ring when tapped, and have the solid color of well-calcined clay when broken.

A pottery forge is a furnace for firing ceramic products. Firing is carried out with hot gases produced by combustion of fuel; For complete firing, a uniform temperature is needed, not lower than 700-900°C, which is impossible over a fire or in a home oven. The bugle appeared in the countries of the Ancient East (Mesopotamia, Egypt) around the third millennium BC.

2.4 Clay processing, product creation process

“I was at the Kopanets, I was at the Topanska, I was at the circle, I was at the fire, I was at the scald...” - the hero of this riddle is an ordinary clay pot. Using his example, you can trace the entire path that clay takes before becoming a ceramic product.

2.4.1 Quarry work (“on Kopanets”)

Quarry operations include the extraction, transportation and storage of intermediate clay reserves. Aging soaked clay and freezing it out for a year in the open air destroys the natural structure of the clay, which increases the plasticity and molding properties of the ceramic mass.

2.4.2 Mechanical processing (“on the trampoline”)

Mechanical processing of clay is carried out manually or using clay processing machines in order to eliminate various excesses (usually pebbles) from the mass and obtain the necessary molding properties.

2.4.3 Molding (“on the circle”)

There are the following main methods of molding: casting method, plastic method - free modeling, molding on a potter's wheel, hand impression in a mold, molding in a rotating plaster mold using a template or roller, semi-dry and dry methods. They are distinguished by the amount of water they contain.

2.4.4 Drying

Drying is the process of removing moisture from materials by evaporation. Drying is necessary to give the raw material mechanical strength and prepare it for firing. The most common are convective and radiation drying methods.

2.4.5 Firing (“on fire”)

Firing completes the production of ceramic products. During the firing process, their structure is formed, which determines the technical properties of the product. Often it is firing that creates the unpredictability of the result: during firing, paints change not only their texture and strength, but also color.

Previously, in order for the vessel not to absorb moisture, it had to be “scalded”, for which it was dipped hot into kvass grounds or liquid flour mash. Gradually, scalding began to be used less and less. To protect ceramic products from the penetration of moisture and exposure to harmful substances, potters increasingly began to cover them with a thin layer of glass - the so-called glaze, or glaze. .

3. Types of ceramics

The main technological types of ceramics are terracotta<#"justify">3.1 Terracotta

Terracotta is a type of rough ceramic. It has been known since the Neolithic era, i.e. more than 5 thousand years BC Terracotta is produced industrially in the form of unglazed, plain ceramic products with a porous shard of red, brown or cream colors. The color shade of terracotta largely depends on the firing conditions. Its water absorption is from 8 to 10%. Terracotta is made from special, fairly widespread varieties of clay, which after firing acquires a characteristic texture: from coarse-grained to fine, with complete or partial polishing, and color<#"justify">3.2 Majolica

Majolica is a type of fine ceramic products made from ordinary brown clay, which has been known since the Neolithic era. In the fracture is a burnt majolica shard of natural “clay” color from light brown to reddish. Water absorption of majolica with white shards is 12%, with colored shards - 16%. For majolica, low-melting clays are used in pure form or with additives. Using the majolica technique, they are created as decorative panels<#"justify">3.3 Faience

Faience - fine ceramic products with a porous (permeable to liquids) skull, which when fractured has a rough, earthy appearance and is always covered with glaze, or glaze. It is capable of absorbing up to 9-12% water. To make faience, fire-resistant white-burning clays (kaolin) with the addition of chalk, quartz sand, etc. are used. Unlike porcelain, it has an opaque porous body, due to which it looks heavier (total porosity 26-30%). Earthenware is represented mainly by tableware, and about 70% of the products are plates. It is also used to create artistic and decorative items, mostly flower vases, decorative wall plates and souvenirs. Due to its relatively high hardness, opaque is considered the highest grade of earthenware.

Earthenware received its name from the name of the Italian city of Faenza, famous for the production of such products. It is noteworthy that in France<#"justify">3.4 Porcelain

Porcelain is the noblest and most perfect type of ceramics. Just like majolica and faience belong to fine ceramic products. It differs from faience, which is so similar at first glance, in a number of special properties, for example, in the fact that its mass is absolutely white not only on the surface, but also in the fracture. Its shard is dense and transparent in its thinnest places. Porcelain's water absorption is very small - up to 0.2%. This is a non-porous ceramic. It consists of a mixture of various types of clay (mostly high-quality kaolin) with sand, feldspar, etc. and translucent glaze that covers the shard. Glaze<#"justify">Depending on the composition of the porcelain mass and glaze, hard and soft porcelain are distinguished. An intermediate type is represented by the so-called bone china. If the twice-fired porcelain mass is left without glaze, a special type of porcelain is formed - bisque porcelain. Fritted porcelain is a highly translucent soft porcelain. French, English, European, oriental, semi-porcelain - the number of varieties of porcelain makes your head spin. But, despite everything, Chinese porcelain is considered the highest quality and most valuable in society.

ceramics pottery earthenware porcelain

Conclusion

Having studied a large amount of material about the history and types of ceramics, I made the following conclusions:

.In its best examples, ceramics reflects the highest achievements of art of all times and peoples;

.The prevalence of ceramics and the uniqueness of its types among different peoples in different eras, the presence of ornaments, marks, and often inscriptions on products make it an important historical source;

.A huge number of objects that surround us in everyday life are ceramic products. Clay and ceramics are used for medical, chemical, construction, architectural, and high-tech purposes.

.The art of ceramics is one of the most ancient; the experience of many millennia has been accumulated here. The uniqueness of raw materials, the variety of molding and decorating methods, and the multi-stage nature of ceramic technology make it a rather difficult subject to study.

.Undoubtedly, it is necessary to consolidate theoretical knowledge on this topic in practice. Firstly, when a novice master does the work on his own at least once, the technique will no longer be only in his head, but also in his hands. In addition, a big plus will be the development of tactile sensations in children, imagination and perseverance in adults. Secondly, the process of creating ceramic products, regardless of their belonging to any species, is a wonderful relaxing and spiritualizing medicine.

.Ceramics is an interesting, necessary and truly elegant form of art, worthy of study and admiration.

Sources

1.G.Ya. Fedotov “Big Encyclopedia of Crafts” - M.: “Eksmo”, 2008. - 608 p.

.O.E. Bazilevich “Production of pottery” - 2nd ed. corr. and additional - M.: State Publishing House of Local Industry of the RSFSR, 1994. - 49 p.

.U.D. Kingery “Introduction to Ceramics” - 2nd ed. - M.: Publishing House of Construction Literature, 1967. - 503 p.

4.S. Marilyn “Ceramics. Encyclopedia" - M.: "Art-populist", 2012. -192 p.

5.www.ceramics-pottery.ru

6.www.kefa.ru<#"justify">List of illustrations

1.Westonian Venus. Vestonitz, between 29,000 and 25,000. BC.

.Figurines from Tanagra. Tanagra, Greece, ca. 300 BC

.Pythosis. Ancient Greece, 7th century. BC.

.Jug, black-polished ceramics. Russia, 19th century

.Some pottery auxiliary tools

Potter's wheel

Pottery forge

.Terracotta Army of Emperor Qin Shi Huang; fragment. China, 210 - 209 BC e.

.Madonna and Child. Luca della Robbia. Florence, 1455

.Naucratic cup from Olbia. 6th century BC e.

11.Porcelain vase<#"justify">.

Album of illustrations

1. Vestonitskaya Venus. Vestonitz, Moravia, between 29,000 and 25,000. BC.

2. Figurines from Tanagra. Tanagra, Greece, ca. 300 BC From left to right: a girl with a tambourine, a girl with a flower garland, a young man sitting on a bench.

3. Pythosis. Ancient Greece, 7th century. BC.

4.Jug, black-polished ceramics. Russia, 19th century

Some Helper Tools

6. Potter's wheel

7.Pottery forge

Terracotta. Terracotta Army of Emperor Qin Shi Huang; fragment. China, 210-209 BC e.

10. Faience Naucratic cup from Olbia. VI century BC e.

11. Porcelain Porcelain vase from the collection of Chinese porcelain from the Qing Dynasty . China, 17th - 19th century

Ceramics is one of the oldest materials used for making dishes and other products. It has a number of positive properties: strength, heat resistance, environmental and chemical safety; products made from it have a high aesthetic potential, which determines its widespread use.

Ceramics are products made from clay (or clay substances) with or without mineral additives, obtained by molding and subsequent firing. To improve consumer aesthetic properties, ceramics are coated with glaze.

Materials used in the production of ceramics are usually divided into plastic materials: clays (polymineral rocks consisting of kaolinites, soda, silicon oxides, feldspar, iron, etc.); kaolin (monomineral rock consisting of kaolinite); leaning materials - reduce shrinkage during drying and firing: quartz sand, alumina, broken porcelain and earthenware, fireclay; fluxes - reduce the sintering temperature and create a glassy phase (feldspar and pegmatite); glaze materials.

The factors that shape the consumer properties and quality of ceramic household goods are the same as for glass products: the type of ceramics, the method of molding and the type of decoration.

Porcelain - has a dense sintered shard of white color (sometimes with a bluish tint) with low water absorption (up to 0.2%), when struck it produces a high melodic sound, and can be translucent in thin layers. Due to the pair firing of the products, the edge of the side or the base of the product is not covered with glaze.

There are hard and soft porcelain. Hard porcelain is used for the production of tableware and tea and coffee tableware for everyday use. Soft porcelain can be: biscuit (not covered with glaze, used for the production of artistic and decorative products), bone (bone meal is introduced into the composition, externally resembles white marble, is characterized by high whiteness and transparency, used for the production of tea and coffee tableware for a festive assortment ), feldspathic (“thin-walled”, similar in properties and purpose to bone, but its white color has a bluish tint); low-temperature (“fritted” - heat-resistant, mechanically strong, usually coated with colored glazes, abroad one of the main types of ceramics for the production of everyday tableware).

The raw materials for the production of porcelain are kaolin, sand, feldspar and other additives.

Semi-porcelain in its properties occupies an intermediate position between porcelain and earthenware, its shard is white, water absorption is 3~5%, it is used in the production of household utensils.

Earthenware has a white shard with a yellowish tint, the porosity of the shard is 9-12%. Due to the high porosity, earthenware products are completely covered with colorless glaze. The glaze has low heat resistance, so this type of ceramic is used in the production of tableware for everyday use. It is produced from white-burning clays with the addition of chalk and quartz sand.

Majolica has a porous shard (water absorption is about 15%), the products have a smooth surface, high gloss, small wall thickness (which is determined by the molding method - casting), they are covered with colored glazes, they can have decorative relief decorations. For the production of majolica, white-burning clays (faience majolica) or red-burning clays (pottery majolica), flux, chalk, and quartz sand are used.

Pottery ceramics - the shard has a red-brown color (red-burning clays are used), high porosity (water absorption up to 18%). Products can be covered with colorless glazes or painted with colored clay paints - engobes. The assortment includes kitchen and household utensils (pots for roasting, milk jugs) and decorative items.

The process of producing ceramic household goods in a simplified form can be represented by the following stages: preparation of raw materials; obtaining ceramic mass; product molding; drying and straightening; burning; glazing; decoration.

The main methods of molding ceramic products are: plastic molding method; casting, semi-dry pressing.

When molding products using the plastic method, ceramic mass with a moisture content of 22-24% is used, the formation is carried out on automatic or semi-automatic machines. With this method, the ceramic mass is placed on the bottom of the mold and rolled out with a template; a product is formed in the gap between the mold and the template. This method is used to produce products from hard porcelain, earthenware, and pottery ceramics.

The casting method involves the use of ceramic mass (slip) with a moisture content of 32-36% (creamy consistency), which is poured into porous gypsum or polyvinyl chloride molds. This method is used to produce products from soft porcelain (except frit), hard porcelain (products of complex shape), and majolica.

For flat products of simple shape, the semi-dry pressing method is used. The ceramic mass has a residual moisture content of 2-3%; pressing is carried out in metal molds. This method is used in the production of products from earthenware, semi-porcelain, and low-temperature porcelain. The advantages of this method are an increase in production speed and a reduction in energy costs (drying and straightening processes are excluded), but it is used for a limited number of types of products: small plates, saucers, etc.

Ceramics are finally formed during the firing process. There are two types of firing: warm and poured. Kiln firing precedes glazing, resulting in a shard that is resistant to soaking. Water firing is carried out after glazing in order to form the structure of the glaze.

When decorating ceramic household goods, a number of methods are used: painting, decorations in the form of stripes, stenciling, silk-screen printing, decals. Specific types of decoration of ceramic household goods include the following:

Coating - covering the surface of a product with paints (distinguish between continuous; partial; with cleaning; with cleaning and finishing; downward and upward) using an airbrush, stencil, special templates;

Stamp - a small one-color surface pattern applied with paints and gold preparations using rubber stamps or tapes; it is usually used in combination with other types of jewelry;

Printing is a contour drawing formed by dots, dashes, strokes (ink from the print is transferred to the product, or first to tissue paper, and then to the product); monochromatic drawings, can be overglaze and underglaze, complemented by painting (with additional drawing), stencil;

Photo on ceramics - used for decorative (gift) products;

Decorations with decorative glazes: colored, flowing, crystal, matte, lace, luster, crackle.

Relief-cut decorations: openwork border, cut-out edge, relief border (and their combinations); decorative reliefs;

Additional decorations with paints and gold preparations: coating - continuous coating of an element of the product; mottled - a partial sketch (smear) emphasizing individual elements of the product.

All drawings, based on the nature of their location on the product, are divided into side drawings; solid; bouquet (up to three sculptures); spreading with a large bouquet; medallion (a picture framed in the form of a circle, oval, polygon); arabesque (narrow side ornamental pattern).

Decorations can be overglaze and underglaze. Most types of surface film decorations can be fired.

Types of ceramics

Pottery can be divided into two groups: unglazed and glazed ceramics. The first group includes terracotta and pottery ceramics - the most ancient of all types of ceramics.

Terracotta- Italian for “burnt earth”. It is baked clay that is not glazed. Previously, sculptures, beads, and reliefs were made from it. Nowadays, this type of ceramic is rarely used.

Pottery ceramics requires additional processing. To make it waterproof, it is smoothed before firing with any smooth object (glazed), compacting the outer layer of clay until a peculiar shine appears (see insert, photo 6).

Soiling involves keeping clay products for a long time in the smoke of a slowly cooling oven. A very ancient method of processing is steaming, or scalding: the product removed from the oven is dipped into water with flour. At the same time, beautiful scorch marks are formed on its surface, and the dishes become waterproof. Nowadays, pottery ceramics have become very widespread. Craftsmen make pots, cups, jugs and other household items. And they are valued no less than porcelain or glass.

The second group includes glazed (or glazed) ceramics. It is covered with a layer of glaze and enamel and fired a second time.

Glaze made the products waterproof and allowed potters to decorate them: a matte, velvety surface alternates with flows of shiny glaze. Under it, the painting with engobes - painted in different colors with liquid clays - looks good (see insert, photo 7).

Engobing- an ancient type of processing of clay surfaces, which is still widely used to this day.

The closest relative of pottery ceramics is majolica. This word comes from the name of the Mediterranean island of Mallorca, where this type of ceramics originated. Majolica is the name given to products made from pottery clay, coated with colored glazes – enamels.

Faience. Its basis is white clay. It is easy to distinguish an earthenware jug from a majolica one, you just have to pay attention to the bottom: pottery ceramics have dark protrusions on it, while earthenware ones have white ones. What distinguishes faience from majolica brings it closer to porcelain, but faience does not have the whiteness and transparency of porcelain, its shard is porous and less durable. Earthenware products have thick, opaque walls with soft, streamlined shapes. It looks especially beautiful when a creamy shard shines through a transparent green, purple or brown glaze.

Porcelain– the most noble ceramics. It is a material consisting of kaolin, clay, quartz and feldspar. Its characteristic features are: white color, lack of porosity, high strength, thermal and chemical resistance. Translucency is valued in household porcelain. There are two main types of porcelain:

1. Hard – with small additions of flux (feldspar) and therefore fired at a relatively high temperature (1380–1460 °C). The mass of classic hard porcelain consists of 25% quartz, 25% feldspar and 50% kaolin and clay.

2. Soft – with a high content of flux, fired at a temperature of 1200–1280 °C. In addition to feldspar, marble, dolomite, magnesite, burnt bone or phosphorite are used as fluxes. With increasing flux content, the amount of glassy phase increases and thus the translucency of porcelain improves, but strength and heat resistance decrease. Clay gives the porcelain mass plasticity (necessary for molding products), but reduces its whiteness. Freshly precipitated barium sulfate – BaSO 4 – is used as a standard for assessing the whiteness of porcelain. Whiteness is characterized by the intensity of light scattering, which is recorded by a photometer.

Thanks to its excellent decorative properties, porcelain has attracted the attention of Europeans since the beginning of the 16th century, when it was first brought to Europe by Portuguese merchants from China, the birthplace of porcelain. In China, it was already known in 220 BC. e. Chinese porcelain began to be imported into Europe in relatively large quantities in the mid-16th century. Naturally, attempts were made in different European countries to discover the secret of this amazing material. The recipe for European porcelain was developed in 1703 by the German physicist Ehrenfried Tschirnhaus, who four years later attracted Böttger to his work. In 1708, Tschirnhaus suddenly died, and Böttger appropriated the invention of the composition and technology of porcelain production. He founded the Meissen porcelain factory, which is still famous to this day.

And yet: why did favorable conditions for the invention of porcelain arise in China? The fact is that in the province of Jian-si near the city of Jin-de-zhen there are inexhaustible reserves of a unique mineral - “porcelain stone”, the favorable composition of which greatly simplifies the creation of the composition of the porcelain mass. Of course, any craft has its secrets and nuances. For example, to improve the molding properties of raw materials, the porcelain mass, intended for the production of the famous Chinese “eggshell” porcelain, that is, products with very thin walls, was kept in the ground for 100 years!

By the end of the 18th century, porcelain was already being made throughout the European continent. In search of the secret of porcelain, many countries created their own varieties of porcelain ceramics: in Germany - red refractory mass, in England - stone, called “Wedgwood porcelain” (named after the inventor and owner of the factory D. Wedgwood), in France - soft frit porcelain .

Another type of ceramic is fireclay. It is a ceramic scrap mixed with clay. Chamotte has a coarse-grained composition, the glaze on the surface spreads in spots without covering it completely, which gives the product a special originality. Chamotte is highly valued by artists who introduced it into the field of decorative and applied arts.

In Russia in 1746, D. I. Vinogradov developed the composition of porcelain and established its production at the imperial factory near St. Petersburg (now the M. V. Lomonosov porcelain factory).

In addition to the formulation of porcelain masses and the study of clays from various deposits, Vinogradov also developed glaze compositions, technological methods and instructions for washing clays at deposits, tested various types of fuel for firing porcelain, drew up designs and built furnaces and forges, invented a formulation of paints for porcelain and decided many related problems.

The production of the first period (up to about 1760) was limited to small items, usually of the Meissen type. During the reign of Catherine the Great (from 1762), the influence of Sèvres was noticeable in the forms and noble decorations of luxurious tableware.

The private porcelain factory of the Englishman Francis Gardner, founded in 1754 in Verbilki near Moscow, competed with the quality of its goods. In 1780 it was transferred to Tver, and in 1891 it came into the possession of M. S. Kuznetsov. The plant produced a variety of products, including those for the yard. Tableware was made with painting, mainly in gray-green and light green tones in various combinations with red or light yellow.

In Ukraine, porcelain production began at the end of the 18th century. Such factories as Koretsky, Gorodetsky, Baranovsky, Volokitinsky are well known.

The Koretsky factory was located in the Volyn province, where the manager was the painter Mero from Sevres.

The plant of the landowner A. M. Miklashevsky was founded in 1830 in the village of Volokitino, Glukhovsky district, Chernigov province, in the area of deposits of the best porcelain clays in Russia. Only porcelain products were made there: dishes, vases with molded flowers, decorative figurines, focusing on Western European samples. At the All-Russian Exhibition of 1839, the plant's products were awarded a Big Silver Medal, and in 1849 - a Gold Medal. Porcelain products from the Miklashevsky factory were marked with a red overglaze mark in the form of merged letters A and M.

The workers at the plant were serfs from Miklashevsky, therefore, with the abolition of serfdom in 1861, the plant ceased to exist.

Baranovsky Porcelain Factory is one of the oldest porcelain enterprises in Ukraine. It is located in a picturesque corner of the country - the town of Baranovka, Zhitomir region, which lies on the banks of the Sluch River. The factory was founded in March 1802 by Mikhail Mezer (the Mezer family created the first porcelain production in Ukraine in Korts) and since then has been continuously operating for two centuries. In 1825, the plant was given permission to mark its products with the state emblem, which indicated their high quality.

A peculiarity of the products produced by porcelain factories in Ukraine was that sculptural figurines occupied a significant place in the assortment of these factories. As a rule, they depicted traditional scenes of life of that time - shepherds and shepherdesses, villagers, representatives of the nobility. In addition, porcelain tubes in the form of male and female figures were widespread. Stucco chandeliers, mirror frames, and stucco porcelain iconostases were made.

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From the author's book

Paints for cold ceramics The main advantage of these paints is their ease of use: they crystallize at normal temperatures and therefore do not require firing. Paints for cold ceramics are absolutely harmless, dry quickly, are easy to use and

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Ceramic paint markers They come in a variety of colors. With the help of markers, the images come out simply gorgeous. This is a great help for those who are starting to paint ceramics for the first time. Markers with ceramic paint can be used to draw in the same way as

From the author's book

Types of grout Depending on the strength requirements for the grout, two different components can be used in its manufacture: cement and resins. So, let's look at both options in more detail. Cement-based grout, in turn, is divided into

Ceramics (ancient Greek kEsbmpt - clay) - products made from inorganic materials (for example, clay) and their mixtures with mineral additives, manufactured under high temperature followed by cooling. In the narrow sense, the word ceramics means clay that has been fired.

Ceramics have become widespread in all areas of life - in everyday life (various dishes), construction (bricks, tiles, pipes, tiles, tiles, sculptural parts), in technology, in railway, water and air transport, in sculpture and applied art.

Depending on the structure there are thin ceramics (vitreous or fine-grained shard) and rude (coarse-grained shard). The main types of fine ceramics are porcelain, semi-porcelain, faience, majolica. The main type of coarse ceramics is pottery ceramics. In addition, there are carbide, boride, silicide, etc. ceramics.

Porcelain It has a dense sintered shard of white color (sometimes with a bluish tint) with low water absorption (up to 0.2%), when tapped it produces a high melodic sound, and can be translucent in thin layers. The glaze does not cover the edge of the bead or the base of the porcelain piece. The raw materials for porcelain are kaolin, sand, feldspar and other additives.

Depending on the composition of the porcelain mass, porcelain is divided into soft And solid. Soft Porcelain differs from hard porcelain not in hardness, but in the fact that when firing soft porcelain, more liquid phase is formed than when firing hard porcelain, and therefore there is a higher risk of deformation of the workpiece during firing.

Hard porcelain, which contains 47-66% kaolin, 25% quartz and 25% feldspar, is richer in kaolin (alumina) and poorer in fluxes. To obtain the required translucency and density, it requires a higher firing temperature (from 1400°C to 1460°C).

Soft porcelain more diverse in chemical composition and consists of 25-40% kaolin, 45% quartz and 30% feldspar. The firing temperature does not exceed 1300-1350°C. Soft porcelain is used primarily for the manufacture of artistic products, and hard porcelain is usually used in technology (electrical insulators) and in everyday use (dishes).

One type of soft porcelain is bone china, which contains up to 50% bone ash, as well as kaolin, quartz, etc., and is particularly white and thin-walled. and translucency.

Porcelain is usually glazed. White, matte, unglazed porcelain is called bisque. In the era of classicism

biscuit was used as inserts in furniture products.

Faience has a porous white shard with a yellowish tint, the porosity of the shard is 9 - 12%. Due to the high porosity, earthenware products are completely covered with a colorless glaze of low heat resistance. Earthenware is used to produce tableware for everyday use. The raw materials for the production of earthenware are white-burning clays with the addition of chalk and quartz sand.

Opak is considered the highest grade of earthenware.

Semi-porcelain in terms of properties it occupies an intermediate position between porcelain and earthenware, the shard is white, water absorption is 3 - 5%, it is used in the production of tableware.

Majolica(from Italian Maiolica - Mallorca) - a type of ceramic made from fired clay using painted glaze. Using the majolica technique, decorative panels, frames, tiles, etc., as well as tableware and even monumental sculptures are made.

Majolica has a porous shard, water absorption is about 15%, the products have a smooth surface, shine, thin walls, are covered with colored glazes and can have decorative relief decorations. Casting is used to make majolica. Raw materials - white-burning clay (faience majolica) or red-burning clay (pottery majolica), flux, chalk, quartz sand.

Pottery ceramics have a red-brown shard (red-burning clays are used), high porosity, water absorption up to 18%. Products can be covered with colorless glazes or painted with colored clay paints - engobes.

Transparent ceramics. Historically, ceramic materials are opaque due to the nature of their structure. However, sintering nanometer-sized particles has made it possible to create transparent ceramic materials with properties (range of operating wavelengths, dispersion, refractive index) that lie outside the standard range of values for optical glasses.

Nanoceramics- ceramic nanostructured material (eng. nanoceramics) - a compact material based on oxides, carbides, nitrides, borides and other inorganic compounds, consisting of crystallites (grains) with an average size of up to 100 nm. Nanoceramics are used for the production of armored ceramics, microwave generator lamps, substrates for semiconductor devices, insulators for vacuum arc extinguishing chambers, power semiconductor devices and electron-optical converters in night vision devices.

Ceramics are a group of materials that occupy an intermediate position between metals and non-metallic elements. As a general rule, the class of ceramics includes oxides, nitrides and carbides. For example, some of the most popular types of ceramics consist of aluminum oxide (Al2O3), silicon dioxide (SiO2), silicon nitride (Si3N4). In addition, substances that many call traditional ceramic materials include various clays (in particular those used to make porcelain), as well as concrete and glass. As for mechanical properties, ceramics are relatively hard and durable materials, comparable in these characteristics to metals. In addition, typical types of ceramics are very hard. However, ceramics are exclusively brittle material(almost complete lack of ductility) and has poor resistance to destruction. All typical types of ceramics do not conduct heat And electricity(i.e. their electrical conductivity is very low).

Ceramics are characterized by higher high temperature resistance and harmful environmental influences. In terms of their optical properties, ceramics can be transparent, translucent or completely opaque, and some oxides, such as iron oxide (Fe2O3), have magnetic properties.

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Introduction

Ceramics (ancient Greek kEsbmpt - clay) are products made from inorganic materials (for example, clay) and their mixtures with mineral additives, manufactured under high temperature followed by cooling.

In the narrow sense, the word ceramics means clay that has been fired.

The earliest ceramics were used as dishes made from clay or mixtures of it with other materials. Currently, ceramics is used as a material in industry (mechanical engineering, instrument making, aviation industry, etc.), construction, art, and is widely used in medicine and science. In the 20th century, new ceramic materials were created for use in the semiconductor industry and other areas.

Modern high-temperature superconducting materials are also ceramics.

1. Types of ceramics

Depending on the structure, a distinction is made between fine ceramics (vitreous or fine-grained shards) and coarse ceramics (coarse-grained shards). The main types of fine ceramics are porcelain, semi-porcelain, stone ceramics, earthenware, majolica. The main type of coarse ceramics is pottery ceramics. In addition, there are carbide, aluminum oxide, zirconium, and nitride ceramics

Porcelain has a dense sintered shard of white color (sometimes with a bluish tint) with low water absorption (up to 0.2%), when tapped it produces a high melodic sound, and can be translucent in thin layers. The glaze does not cover the edge of the bead or the base of the porcelain piece. Raw materials for porcelain - kaolin, sand, feldspar and other additives. Faience has a porous white shard with a yellowish tint, the porosity of the shard is 9 - 12%. Due to the high porosity, earthenware products are completely covered with a colorless glaze of low heat resistance. Earthenware is used to produce tableware for everyday use. The raw materials for the production of earthenware are white-burning clays with the addition of chalk and quartz sand.

Semi-porcelain in properties occupies an intermediate position between porcelain and earthenware, the crock is white, water absorption is 3-5%, it is used in the production of tableware.

Majolica has a porous shard, water absorption is about 15%, the products have a smooth surface, shine, thin walls, are covered with colored glazes and can have decorative relief decorations. Casting is used to make majolica. Raw materials - white-burning clays (faience majolica) or red-burning clays (pottery majolica), flux, chalk, quartz sand

Pottery ceramics have a red-brown shard (red-burning clays are used), high porosity, and water absorption up to 18%. Products can be covered with colorless glazes or painted with colored clay paints - engobes.

2. Historical overview

ceramics industry medicine high temperature

Clay has faithfully served humanity throughout its long history. At first glance, completely unattractive, it was indispensable in many areas of human activity. The plasticity of clay, its ability to turn into a durable and water-resistant material after firing, attracted human attention to it back in the Mesolithic era, 10-16 thousand years BC. e.

Archaeological excavations carried out in many countries of Europe, Africa, Asia, and America confirm the widespread development of ceramic craft. In the monuments of material culture that have reached us, one can find household items of remarkable beauty: dishes, jewelry, all kinds of figurines of animals, birds and many other items.

The first clay products were fragile and very susceptible to moisture, so only grain and other dry foods could be stored in them. But one day, while removing the ashes of an extinguished fire, a man noticed that the clay soil, which he always used to make household items, became as strong as stone under the influence of heat. Since then, people began to burn clay products to give them strength. The miraculous transformation of clay was called “ceramics”, which translated from Greek means “clay”.

The discovery of firing made ancient man's pottery practical. At that time, ceramic products were made using the molding method, tape, spiral-bundle - they were laid one on top of the other in a spiral. During the late Neolithic period, approximately 4 thousand years BC. BC, ceramic vessels began to be decorated with ornaments in which circle and spiral motifs predominated, denoting the sun, moon, lightning and other magical powers, and covered with multi-colored patterns. Such products were found in the southwest of our country (Tripillian culture), countries of Central Asia, the Middle East, the Mediterranean and other areas of the world.

An example of the ceramic craftsmanship of that period are jugs with a narrow neck, various double vessels, reminiscent of modern binoculars, and deep bowls painted with black, red and white clay. Already at that time, ceramics achieved great artistic expression. And only with the invention of the potter's wheel (4th - early 3rd millennium BC) the process of making ceramic products was dramatically simplified and labor productivity increased.

The potter's wheel was a greatest achievement, making it possible to create symmetrical, evenly expanding or, conversely, tapering products of various shapes. An experienced potter could make a pot, cup or other necessary thing from wet, well-kneaded clay in a few minutes. A piece of clay in his hands was flattened, stretched, the walls of the vessel rose, became thinner and took on the intended shape. After this, the products were fired in pits dug in the ground or brick kilns. Soft, plastic clay turned into a hard shard.

Pottery masters gradually discovered the secrets of clay: they understood its types, learned to make recipes for clay masses, invented glazes, and came up with new, more economical forms of products. Using simple clay processing techniques and simple equipment, they created genuine works of art with great taste and virtuosity.

Modern ceramic production is equipped with sophisticated equipment and uses new dyes and finishing methods. Of course, it is impossible and there is no need to copy it at home. But it is possible to create products that are simple in manufacturing technology. They will keep the warmth of your hands, your love for this ancient, but eternally young form of creativity.

Ceramics have been known since ancient times and are perhaps the first material created by man. It was believed that the emergence of ceramics was directly related to the transition of man to a sedentary lifestyle, so it occurred much later than baskets. Until recently, the first examples of ceramics known to us belonged to the Upper Paleolithic era (Gravettian culture). The oldest object made of baked clay dates back to 29-25 millennia BC. This is the Vestonice Venus, kept in the Moravian Museum in Brno.

Pots found in 1993 from the Sanzhendong Cave ( English) in Jiangxi province in the southeast of China were molded 20-19 thousand years ago. Shards from a pointed vessel found in Yuchanyan Cave ( English) in Hunan province in southeast China, date back to 18.3-17.5 thousand years ago.

In Mesolithic cultures, pottery was used sporadically and usually at a late stage; The most advanced examples of Mesolithic ceramics are known from the Jomon culture in Japan. In the Neolithic, ceramics became an integral attribute of almost all archaeological cultures (with the exception of the period of the most ancient agrarian communities of the pre-ceramic Neolithic in the Middle East, when the transition to a sedentary lifestyle occurred before many other technological innovations).

Initially, ceramics were shaped by hand. The invention of the potter's wheel in the third millennium BC (late Eneolithic - early Bronze Age) made it possible to significantly speed up and simplify the process of forming a product. In pre-Columbian cultures of the Americas, Native American pottery was made without a potter's wheel until the arrival of Europeans.

Certain types of ceramics were formed gradually as production processes improved, depending on the properties of the raw materials and the resulting processing conditions.

The oldest types of ceramics are various vessels, as well as spindle whorls, weaving weights and other objects. This household ceramics was ennobled in various ways - relief was applied by stamping, tracing, and applied elements. The vessels received different colors depending on the firing method. They could be polished, painted or painted with ornaments, covered with engobe, a glossy layer (Greek ceramics and Roman Terra sigillata), or colored glaze (Haffnerceramics of the Renaissance).

By the end of the 16th century, majolica (depending on its origin, also often called faience) appeared in Europe. Featuring a porous shard of iron- and lime-containing but white earthenware, it was coated with two glazes: an opaque, high-tin glaze, and a transparent, shiny lead glaze.

The decor was painted on majolica using wet glaze before firing the product at a temperature of about 1000 °C. The paints for painting were taken of the same chemical composition as the glaze, but a significant part of them were metal oxides that could withstand high temperatures (the so-called fireproof paints - blue, green, yellow and violet). Starting from the 18th century, so-called muffle paints began to be used, which were applied to already fired glaze. They are also used for painting porcelain.

In the 16th century, the production of stone ceramic ware spread in Germany. White (for example, in Siegburg) or colored (for example, in Reren), a very dense shard consisted of clay mixed with feldspar and other substances. After firing at a temperature of 1200-1280 °C, stone ceramics became hard and practically non-porous. In Holland they produced red stone pottery on the model of Chinese pottery, and the same feature is exhibited by Böttger's pottery

Stoneware was also produced by Wedgwood in England. Fine faience, as a special type of ceramic with a white porous shard covered with white glaze, appeared in England in the first half of the 18th century. Depending on the strength of the shard, earthenware is divided into soft, thin earthenware with a high lime content, medium - with a lower lime content, and hard - without lime at all. This latter shard often resembles stone ceramics or porcelain in composition and strength.

Pottery can be divided into two groups: unglazed and glazed ceramics. The first group includes terracotta and pottery ceramics - the most ancient of all types of ceramics. Terracotta-- Italian for “baked earth.” It is baked clay that is not glazed. Previously, sculptures, beads, and reliefs were made from it. Nowadays, this type of ceramic is rarely used.

Pottery ceramics requires additional processing. To make it waterproof, it is smoothed before firing with any smooth object (“polished”), compacting the outer layer of clay until a peculiar shine appears. “Staining” involves keeping clay products for a long time in the smoke of a slowly cooling oven. A very ancient method of processing is “steaming”, or “scalding”: the product removed from the oven is dipped into water with flour. At the same time, beautiful scorch marks are formed on its surface, and the dishes become waterproof. Currently, pottery ceramics have become very widespread. It is used to make pots, cups, jugs and other household items. And they are valued no less than porcelain and glass.

The second group includes glazed (or glazed) ceramics. It is covered with a layer of glaze and enamel and fired a second time. The glaze made the products waterproof and allowed potters to decorate them: a matte, velvety surface alternates with flows of shiny glaze. Under the glaze, painting with engobes - painted in different colors with liquid clays - looks good. Engobing is an ancient type of processing of clay surfaces, but is still widely used.

The closest relative of pottery ceramics is majolica. This word comes from the name of the Mediterranean island of Mallorca, where this type of ceramics originated. Majolica is the name given to products made from pottery clay, coated with colored glazes - enamels.

Faience. Its basis is white clay. It is easy to distinguish an earthenware jug from a majolica one, you just have to pay attention to the bottom: pottery ceramics have dark protrusions on it, while earthenware ones have white ones. What distinguishes faience from majolica brings it closer to porcelain, but faience does not have the whiteness and transparency of porcelain, its shard is porous and less durable. Earthenware products have thick, opaque walls of soft, streamlined shapes. It is especially beautiful when a creamy shard is visible through a transparent green, purple or brown glaze.

In Russia, earthenware production reached a high level of development in the 18th century. Talented and original folk craftsmen of Gzhel and other centers of ceramic crafts have taken an honorable place in the history of Russian decorative and applied arts.

Homeland porcelain is China. Thanks to its high strength, absolute whiteness of the shard, richness of colors, and chemical resistance, it significantly surpassed all European ceramics. To create porcelain, a very high firing temperature is required - up to 1400 ° C and a complex clay mass, including kaolin, feldspar sand and other additives. Porcelain was highly valued and ceramists in European countries struggled to unravel the so-called “Chinese secret,” but all their attempts ended in vain. And so, in 1709, a dense, translucent, absolutely white porcelain shard was obtained in Meissen (Saxony). By the end of the 18th century, porcelain production was mastered throughout the European continent.

In Russia, porcelain was invented by a friend of M.V. Lomonosov, the chemist D.I. Vinogradov.

During the search for the secret of making porcelain, many countries created their own varieties of porcelain ceramics: in Germany - a red refractory mass, in England - a stone mass called “Wedgwood porcelain” (named after the inventor and owner of the factory, D. Wedgwood), in France - soft frit porcelain.

The next and last type of ceramics is fireclay. It is a ceramic scrap mixed with clay. Chamotte has a coarse-grained composition, the glaze on its surface spreads in spots without covering it completely, which gives the chamotte product a special originality. It is highly valued by artists who introduced it into the field of decorative and applied arts.

3. Ceramics in Russia

The oldest ceramic dishes (12 thousand years ago) in Russia were discovered in Transbaikalia and the Far East (see Siberian Neolithic)

Transparent ceramics

Historically, ceramic materials are opaque due to the nature of their structure. However, sintering nanometer-sized particles has made it possible to create transparent ceramic materials with properties (range of operating wavelengths, dispersion, refractive index) that lie outside the standard range of values for optical glasses.

4. Nanoceramics

Ceramic nanostructured material (eng. nanoceramics) is a compact material based on oxides, carbides, nitrides, borides and other inorganic compounds, consisting of crystallites (grains) with an average size of up to 100 nm. Nanoceramics are used for the production of armored ceramics, microwave generator lamps, substrates for semiconductor devices, insulators for vacuum arc extinguishing chambers, power semiconductor devices and electron-optical converters in night vision devices.

Technology for the production of ceramic products

1. Preparation of slip;

2. Product molding;

4. Preparation of glaze and glazing (enamelling)

Raw materials for ceramic masses are divided into plastic (clay and kaolin) and non-plastic. Additions of fireclay and quartz reduce product shrinkage and the likelihood of cracking at the molding stage. Lead red lead and borax are used as glass formers.

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