Sealine - tours to France

History of France (key dates)

1st century BC – III century AD
Active Romanization of southern Gaul - cities are being built (many public buildings: baths, theaters, temples), aqueducts. Remains of Roman buildings still remain.

IV century
The city of Burdigala (modern Bordeaux) is famous for its higher education (the study of Greek and Latin literature, rhetoric)

5th century
There were more than 100 cities in Gaul. Under pressure from the German tribes of the Suevi, Burgundians and Franks, Roman troops retreated from the border along the Rhine, leaving part of Gaul to the Germans. The Visigoths occupied Aquitaine from the Loire to the Garonne and founded the Kingdom of Toulouse.

Around 450
Under the pressure of the Anglo-Saxons, part of the Briton tribes moved from the British Isles to the Armorica Peninsula (modern Brittany), the ethnic identity of this province is still preserved.

451
Invasion of the Huns. Roman troops and Frankish squads defeated Attila's Huns in the battle on the Catalaunian fields, near Troyes.

5th century, last quarter
The Visigoths captured Gascony, Provence and almost all of Spain, as well as the central regions (modern Bury, Limousin and Auvergne). In the valleys of the Saone and Rhone, the Burgundians founded the kingdom of Burgundy.

482
The northern regions from the Loire to the Somme and the Meuse were subjugated by the Frankish tribal union. The Frankish ruler Holdwig founded the Frankish Merovingian state. The Franks retained Roman cities and government systems.

496
The Franks adopted Christianity according to the Roman rite, which provided them with the support of the Pope against the rest of the Germanic tribes who professed Arianism.

6th century, beginning
The first edition of the Salic Truth was created - a set of laws, which included the norms of unwritten (customary) law and the norms of early feudal law. For the Gallo-Roman population, the norms of Roman law were preserved.

511
Holdvig died. The Frankish state crumbled into the inheritance of his sons.

6th century, middle
The Franks established their dominance by subjugating the Visigoths and Burgundians. The Frankish state of the Merovingians emerged. Under the influence of the Germans, feudal land ownership began to take shape in Gaul.

6th century, end – 7th century, beginning
During the internecine wars, four parts of the Frankish state took shape: Neustria (in the north-west, with a center in Paris and a predominantly Halo-Roman population, Burgundy (in the east), Aquitaine (in the south-west) and Austrasia (north-eastern part of Gaul, inhabited by the eastern Franks later became part of Germany).

687
Mayor Pepin II (the manager of the royal domain, appointed by the king) concentrated real power in the Frankish state in his hands.

732
Battle of Poitiers. The Frankish majordomo Charles Martell (nickname means “hammer”) defeated the Arabs, stopping their advance into the interior of the country.

737
Charles Martel seized power in the Frankish state.

751
Pepin III the Short exiled the last Merovingian king to a monastery and founded a new Carolingian dynasty.

768-789
Charlemagne (742-814) became King of France. Under him, global transformations were carried out within the state, for example, administrative reform: a court, a palace court, and an office were created to manage the empire. Active foreign policy(creation of border stamps, for example Spanish, Breion). Charles became famous as a patron of the arts. The flourishing of culture under him was called the Carolingian Renaissance. Schools were opened at all monasteries of the Frankish state.

800
The Frankish state turned into a huge “Holy Roman Empire”, covering the western part of Germany, all of France and the northern part of Italy, led by Emperor Charlemagne. Under the influence of a higher Gallo-Roman culture, the Franks assimilated, lost their language, adopted Gallo-Roman speech and enriched it with Germanic words. The official language of the Frankish state is Romance.

842
Exchange of "Oaths" (the first document in French) between kings Charles the Bald and Louis the German.

843
Treaty of Verdun – partition Frankish Empire, the separation of the West Frankish state, which became known as France.

9th century, mid
Norman raids on France. Not only coastal cities were devastated, but also settlements inland, including Paris. The Normans captured part of France at the mouth of the Seine and founded the Duchy of Normandy (911).

10th century
France was divided into counties and duchies.

X-XII centuries
Romanesque style in architecture.

910
Cluny Abbey founded.

987
End of the Carolingian dynasty. Count of Paris Hugo Capet is elected king of France. The beginning of the reign of the Capetian dynasty (ruled until 1328). The royal domain included lands along the Seine and Loire with Paris and Orleans.

1060-1108
Philip I. The struggle of the cities of communes with the lords became a means of strengthening Royal power. As they were annexed to the royal domain, duchies and counties became provinces.

1095
Pope Urban II called at the Council of Clermont to “release the Holy Sepulchre”

1096-1099
I Crusade. It consisted of two parts - a campaign of the poor (from central and northern France and western Germany) under the leadership of Pierre of Amiens (the Hermit) along the route of pilgrims - along the Rhine and Danube to Constantinople. At the same time, the first Jewish pogroms in the history of medieval Europe took place. At the end of 1096, detachments of feudal lords moved from Lorraine, Normandy, the south of France and Italy. In the east, the crusaders created a number of states: the State of Jerusalem and its vassal counties - Tripoli and Edessa, the Principality of Antioch.

Around 1143
In the south of France, between Toulouse and Albi, the heresy of the Cathars (from the Greek “pure”) spread. The Cathars rejected all Catholic dogmas, subordination to the state, and demanded the confiscation of church lands, which attracted the nobility to them. They created their own church organization.

1147
The Muslims conquered Edessa, which became the reason for the Second Crusade led by Louis VII and the German Emperor Conrad III (ended in vain). Louis VII divorced Aleanor of Aquiet, and Henry II Plantagenet, Count of Anjou, married her.

1154
Henry II Plantagenet became king of England and almost 2/3 of France. Normandy, Aquitaine, Anjou, Maine, Poitou came under his rule and cut off access to the sea for the royal domain. An instant conflict arose between England and France.

1209-1228
The kings and knights of Northern France, taking advantage of the spread of the Albigensian (Cathari and Waldensian) heresy in the south, subjected the southern regions with a higher economic and cultural standard of living to terrible defeat and annexed the County of Toulouse (Languedoc) to the royal domain.

Around 1226
The Inquisition was organized in Toulouse.

1226-1270
Louis IX Saint.

1248-1254 years
Louis IX the Saint led the VII Crusade to Egypt, where he was captured and ransomed for a huge sum.

1270
Louis IX gathered the VIII Crusade, but when he reached Tunisia, he died of the plague, like most of the knights.

1285 – 1314
Philip IV the Handsome.

1302
"Bruges Matins". In the city of Bruges, the French garrison was slaughtered, stationed here during the struggle for the County of Flanders. In response, Philip IV the Fair led his knights to Flanders. The “Battle of the Spurs” took place, during which the Flanders weavers killed the knights, took off their golden spurs (the distinction of knighthood and hung them in the church. The Estates General was convened - an estate assembly to vote taxes. The first estate was the clergy, the second was the nobility, the third was the bourgeois (citizens, tax-paying class).

1306
Philip IV the Fair confiscated the property of the Jews (mostly moneylenders) and expelled them from France, but then allowed them to return (this happened more than once during his reign).

1307
The Order of the Templars, to whom the king owed huge sums, was defeated. Many members of the order were executed, some were expelled, and the colossal property of the order was confiscated. The master of the order, Jacques de Molay, cursed the king and his offspring at the stake. In 1312, the Pope dissolved the order.

1328-1350
Philip VI begins the reign of the Valois dynasty, a side branch of the Capetians (until 1589).

1337-1453
Hundred Years' War with England.

1380-1422
Large feudal lords ruled on behalf of Charles VI, who suffered from bouts of madness.

1413
Confrontation under King Charles VI of two parties - the Armagnacs and the Burgundians. Uprisings in Paris, convening of the Estates General, resumption of the Hundred Years' War.

1420
The Duke of Burgundy went over to the side of the English king. Occupation of Paris.

1422-1461
Reign of Charles VII.

1429
Joan of Arc persuaded the indecisive and weak Charles VII to entrust her with an army to lift the siege of Orleans, and when she succeeded, she went with Charles VII to Reims for his coronation in Reims Cathedral, the traditional place of coronation of French kings.

1430
In the battle with the British at Compiegne, Jeanne and her detachment had to retreat to the city gates, but they remained locked. The Burgundians captured her and sold her to the British. The court sentenced Zhanna to death penalty, and in 1431 she was burned at the stake in Rouen. In 1456, all charges against Jeanne were dropped, and she became a national heroine. In the twentieth century, the Catholic Church canonized her.

1439
Charles VII declared the independence of the French Church from the Pope.

1453
Charles VII conquered Bordeaux, ending the Hundred Years' War. The British lost all continental possessions except the city of Calais.

1461-1483
Louis XI. A skilled diplomat, he did not like war and bequeathed to his son to remember: “He who does not know how to pretend does not know how to govern.” Crafts and trade revived. Embryos arose economic policy mercantilism, which is based on a positive trade balance. Louis XI encouraged the development of industry (in particular, he forced Lyon to produce silk fabrics and organize fairs, which quickly eclipsed those in Geneva).

1477
The annexation of Burgundy to the royal domain after the death of Charles the Bold, the last Duke of Burgundy.

1483-1498
Reign of Charles VIII.

1515-1547
Reign of Francis I

1534
The Jesuit order "Society of Jesus" was founded to fight the Reformation.

1559
King Henry II died during the tournament. His wife Catherine de' Medici became regent under the infant Francis II, then under Charles IX.

1562-1592
Religious wars. A war began (1562) between Catholics and Huguenots (Protestants, followers of Calvin. Most often they were townspeople and nobles of the south of France). Internal migration has led to the erasure of regional differences.

1589
A Dominican friar killed Henry III, the last king of the Valois dynasty.

1589-1610
Henry IV of Bourbon. The beginning of the reign of the Bourbon dynasty (before 1792 and in 1814-1830). The integrity of the country was restored according to the principle of uniting “all lands where French is spoken.”

1598
Edict of Nantes. The Catholic religion is recognized as dominant in France. Freedom of Protestant worship was established. Catholics and Protestants have equal rights.

1610
The Catholic fanatic Ravaillac killed Henry IV, under whom religious peace was established and the state of finances and governance of the country improved. Louis XIII (1601-1643), son of Henry IV and Marie de Medici, ascended the throne. During the regency of M. Medici, the country was actually ruled by her favorite, the Italian adventurer Concino Concini (involved in the murder of the king), whom she made Marquis d'Anchor and Marshal of France.

1617
The favorite of Louis XIII, the Duke of Luynes, persuaded the king to remove Concini. Concini was killed, and his wife was accused of witchcraft and burned at the stake, Luynes appropriated their enormous fortune and achieved the expulsion of Marie de Medici.

1618-1648
Thirty Years' War. France helped German Protestants in the fight against the Habsburgs.

1624-1642
Richelieu's reign under Louis XIII. Richelieu contributed to the strengthening of the absolute monarchy and actually created the centralized state of France.

1631
The first French newspaper "GAZETTE DE FRANCE" was founded.

1635
Richelieu founded the French Academy.

1648
As a result of the Thirty Years' War, France took a dominant position in central Europe.

1659
The marriage of the future Louis XIV to the Spanish Infanta Maria Theresa put an end to the long feud between the two royal houses.

1664
Colbert founded the West India and New East India campaigns.

1665
Jean-Baptiste Colbert has been appointed Comptroller General of Finance of France. Pursuing a policy of mercantilism, he stabilized the financial system and ensured economic growth.

1669
Construction of the Palace of Versailles has begun.

1685
The revocation of the Edict of Nantes on freedom of Protestant worship, the flight of the Huguenots.

1701-1714
War of the Spanish Succession: Austria, Holland, Habsburg Empire against France and Bavaria. Philip V (grandson of Louis XIV) became king of Spain. France lost part of its American possessions.

18th Century of Enlightenment

1715
After the death of Louis XIV, his great-grandson Louis XV became king (until 1774). The country is severely ruined: “1/10 of the inhabitants are begging, and 1/2 do not have the opportunity to give alms.”

1733
War with Austria and Russia for the Polish inheritance.

1774-1793
Reign of Louis XVI.

1781
Report from the Minister of Finance on the appalling state of the country's budget.

1788
The Treasury declared bankruptcy.

1789-1794
The French Revolution.

1789
After a 175-year interval, the Estates General was convened. A month and a half later, the third estate proclaimed itself the National Assembly - this became the prologue to the Great French Revolution. The bourgeoisie demanded equality before the law and the abolition of tax privileges.

1789
Summer. Peasant uprisings, abolition of feudal duties. Political clubs arose in Paris, from which political parties were formed. Nationalization of church property to reduce the budget deficit. On August 26, the Declaration of Human and Civil Rights was adopted.

1790
Church reform, abolition of hereditary nobility, adoption of the first constitution.

1791
The failed flight of Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette from Paris. Aggravation of relations between radical and moderate deputies of the National Assembly. The Jacobins, led by Robespierre, demanded that the king be punished and a republic proclaimed.

1791, end
In Europe, interventions were being prepared against revolutionary France.

1792, August 10
Storming the royal Tuileries Palace, overthrowing the monarchy (the king and his family were imprisoned).

1793, April 6-June 2
1793, April 6-June 2, the Committee of Public Safety came to power. The main government body of the Jacobins led by Danton.

1794
The Jacobin bloc split into right and left: Dantonists (Danton) and Héberists (Héber).

1794, Mara
The Héberists opposed the government and were executed (Hébert and Chaumet).

1794, April
Danton, Desmoulins and other Dantonists (supporters of radical measures who opposed terror) were executed.

1794, July 26
Thermidorian coup. The Jacobin club was closed, Robespierre and Saint-Just were arrested and executed without trial. New constitution.

1794, October
Ecole Normale was established - educational institution for teacher training.

1795
The Institute of France, the highest science Center countries.

1796
Napoleon's campaign in Italy, the defeat of the Austrian Troops.

1798
Napoleon's Egyptian campaign, the capture of Malta, Admiral Nelson's victory at Abicourt. Napoleon returned to France.

1799
Napoleon carried out a military coup. According to the new constitution, power passes to three consuls. Napoleon is the first consul.

1802
Napoleon was appointed consul for life. Amnesty for emigrants, economic reforms began.

1804
Napoleon was proclaimed emperor, the nobility was restored, and government, put into effect Civil Code(Napoleonic Code).

1805
The defeat of the Austro-Russian troops at Austerlitz ended the war with the third anti-French coalition.

1807
The Tilsit Peace – Russian-French rapprochement. French hegemony in Europe. Napoleon's first meeting with Alexander I.

1812 Napoleon's campaign in Russia, capture of Moscow, death French army in Russia.

1813
French troops are expelled from Spain. The anti-French coalition strengthened. The Battle of Leipzig - “Battle of the Nations”, the defeat of Napoleon.

1814, April
Allied forces (England, Austria, Prussia and Russia) occupied Paris. The provisional government announced the deposition of Napoleon, he was given the title of emperor and exiled to the island of Elba in the Mediterranean Sea. After Napoleon's abdication, Louis XVIII (brother of the executed king) gained power. The country maintained civil liberties and the Napoleonic Code. The Treaty of Paris is relatively soft conditions for France, which lost the war.

1815
"One Hundred Days of Napoleon": Napoleon's landing on south coast France, march to Paris. Louis XVIII fled. The empire has been restored. The Battle of Waterloo ended in the defeat of Napoleon, exile to St. Helena. Restoration of the monarchy. The second Treaty of Paris is more stringent than the first (1814).

1821
Death of Napoleon.

1824
Under the Constitutional Charter granted by the King, France became a constitutional monarchy. The national flag is the white banner of the Bourbons.

1830 July - August
July Revolution, abdication of Charles X of Bourbon. The Chamber of Deputies and the Chamber of Pens elected the Duke of Orleans, Louis-Philippe, as king. The French flag became tricolor. The revolution was not as bloody as the Great Revolution, but it affected Belgium, Poland, Germany, Italy, and Switzerland.

1840
Napoleon's ashes were transported to Paris.

1848, February
A new revolution has begun. Fighting in Paris, the Tuileries Palace was captured, Prime Minister Guizot resigned, Louis Philippe abdicated the throne. A republic is proclaimed. Decree on the right to work, Decree on the organization of national workshops.

1848
Republican victory in the elections to the National (Constituent) Assembly.

1848, February 10
The constitution of the second republic was adopted. Louis Napoleon (nephew of Napoleon I) became the President of France.

1849
Elections to the Legislative Assembly. Victory of the monarchists over the republicans.

1850
Law on the transfer of public education to the clergy.

1851
The National Assembly was dissolved. Louis-Napoloen was endowed with dictatorial powers and a censorship was introduced.

1852
Louis Napoleon declared himself Emperor Napoleon III. Second Empire (until 1870).

1870
France declared war on Prussia. The Battle of Sedan, Napoleon III surrendered and abdicated the throne. Paris is surrounded by Prussian troops.

1871
The capitulation of Paris, the signing of peace on very unfavorable terms for France.

1871, March 18-May 16
Paris Commune. Power passed to the Central Committee of the National Guard. The cabinet and army fled to Versailles.

1871
The commune was crushed by German and French troops. 25 thousand people died.

1871, August
The National Assembly elected Thiers president of the French republic.

1875
Constitution of the Third Republic.

1894
The president was assassinated (since 1887). The rise of revolutionary anarchism.

1895
The Lumière brothers invented the cinematograph

The weather in France is determined by several climate zones. In the west of the country, due to the influence of the Atlantic Ocean, summers are rainy and cool, and winters are mild and wet.

In the central part of the country, summers are hotter, winters are colder, in Lorraine and Alsace the temperature often drops below zero, and in Strasbourg and Nancy there are severe frosts.

The Mediterranean climate of the south provides warm winters with above-zero temperatures and sultry summers, when the air warms up to +30 degrees and above. The velvet season on the Cote d'Azur is August and September, the sweltering heat of July has already receded, and the water in the sea is the warmest. Excursions will be more comfortable in April and May, or September-October.

The country's topography is predominantly flat; the Pyrenees mountains in the south of the country and the Alps in the southeast serve as the natural borders of France. Large navigable rivers flow through the country: Garonne, Loire, Seine. About a third of the country's territory is occupied by forests; oak, hazel, cork, and spruce grow in the north.

In the south, a Russian tourist will be pleased to see palm trees and tangerine plantations.

In the sea waters near the borders of France there are cod, herring, tuna, flounder, and mackerel.

The country's fauna is represented by wolves, bears, foxes, badgers, deer, hares, squirrels; snakes and mountain goats are found in the mountains. Birds - the familiar pigeon, pheasant, hawk, thrush, magpie, snipe.

Shopping

No one manages to return from France without shopping. Shopping in a country recognized as the birthplace of chic and elegance is a special pleasure. France is the center of fashion, winemaking, perfumery, cooking and cosmetics; here you want to buy everything at once.

But you should not make purchases in tourist centers. It makes more sense to visit large shopping malls or department stores.

Clothing stores with affordable prices - Naf Naf, Kookai, Cote a Cote, C&A, Morgan, shoes - Andre.

Excellent edible French gifts for loved ones and friends would be wine, cognac, gift sets of cheeses, and macaroons. Traditional souvenirs and purchases - images of the Eiffel Tower on magnets, key rings, decorative panels; berets and silk scarves; crystal products from Baccarat or glass from Brea.

Connoisseurs of fine aromas go to the town of Grasse, not far from Cannes, where the world-famous Fragonard perfume factory with a 400-year history is located, producing fragrant oils for perfumes. The factory hosts excursions during which those interested can purchase fine perfumes, fragrant soaps and other aromatic products.

Limoges, the capital of the Limousin province, is famous for its carpets and high-quality porcelain.

Sales held in France are popular when initial cost goods is significantly reduced. Twice a year, usually on the second Wednesday of January and the last Wednesday of June, prices plummet by 40-70%. This feast for shopaholics lasts about 5 weeks. During the rest of the year, large sales are not allowed in France.

France allows non-residents to return up to 20.6% VAT (33% on luxury goods). Refund conditions: purchase of goods in the same store in the amount of 185 € to 300 €, depending on the store; registration when purchasing a border (inventory for export); leaving the EU within three months after purchase. On the day of departure from France, you must present the purchased goods and border at the customs point. You will receive the money when you return home via credit card transfer or check in the mail. This can also be done at the airport at an authorized bank or Tax Free for tourists kiosk.

IN major cities shops are open from 10.00 to 19.00. except Sunday. Provincial stores are usually closed on Monday. There is a lunch break here - from 12.00 to 14.00, or from 13.00 to 15.00.

Grocery stores and bakeries are open in the mornings on weekends and holidays.

Kitchen and food

The French are unsurpassed gourmets, their cuisine is one of the most refined and beloved in the whole world. A French chef is a priori considered a virtuoso of the culinary arts; he will always add something of his own to a standard recipe, playing with it in such a way that you will forever remember the taste and aroma of the dish.

Each region of France is famous for its distinctive dishes. Normandy cheese and Calvados brought this region worldwide fame. Brittany will offer the traveler pancakes made from buckwheat flour stuffed with cheese, meat or eggs; in Toulouse you will try beans baked in a pot; in the southwest of the country you will enjoy goose liver pate - foie gras. You will appreciate one of the traditional French dishes - fish and seaweed soup bouibesse - in Marseille. In Rouen, you will delight in Andouille sausages and roast duck. In Le Havre you can pay tribute to excellent biscuits, and in Honfleur - omelettes and snails in wine sauce. Despite regional differences, all second courses are always accompanied by a side dish of vegetables and root vegetables - artichokes, asparagus, lettuce, beans, eggplant, peppers, spinach. And, of course, every meal is accompanied by the famous delicious French sauces, of which there are up to 3,000 recipes.

An integral part of the local cuisine is various seafood - oysters, lobsters, lobsters. At oyster farms in the south of France, at a price of 8 € per dozen, you will be offered the most delicious, juicy and fresh shellfish, and so that you can appreciate their specific taste, they will be served with bread and butter, lemon and a certain type of white wine.

The calling card of France is cheese; there are more than 1,500 varieties of it. Hard and soft, cow, sheep, goat, aged and moldy - French cheese is always of the highest quality and with a delicious taste.

Popular are omelettes and cheese soufflés, which are prepared with various fillings and seasonings: herbs, ham, mushrooms.

An iconic dish of French cuisine - onion soup. It has nothing in common with boiled onions, as many imagine who have not tried this wonderful dish. This is a thick, aromatic soup in meat broth with croutons baked in cheese and aromatic seasonings.

The first course in France is traditionally a puree soup made from all kinds of vegetables.

For dessert, you will be offered open-faced fruit or berry cakes, the famous creme brulee - cream baked with a caramel crust, soufflé and, of course, the famous croissants.

In the southern regions, each meal is accompanied by a glass of table wine. In the north and in big cities, many people prefer beer. Popular strong drinks are Calvados, cognac, absinthe.

In many establishments, eating and drinking at the counter (au comptoir) is cheaper than at a table (a salle), you will understand this from the prices on the menu. Meals at outdoor tables are 20% more expensive than indoors.

Lunch in cafes and restaurants lasts from 12.00 to 15.00, dinner from 19.00 to 23.00. A set meal (menu of the day) in Chinese establishments costs 10 €, in cafes from 19 €, in restaurants 30 €.

The food bill often states service compris, which means that the cost of service is already included. If there is no such inscription, then the waiter needs to be thanked with an amount of 5-10% of the bill.

Unfortunately, tourists are often shortchanged, so check your bill before paying.

Helpful information

To visit France, Russian citizens will need a Schengen visa.

The official currency of the country is the euro.

Capital banks are closed on weekends and holidays, and on weekdays they are open from 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. Banks in the province are open from Tuesday to Saturday. Exchange offices will serve you on any day except Sunday.

The amount of imported and exported currency is not limited, but amounts over €7,500 (or other monetary equivalent) must be declared. The most favorable exchange rate is at Bank de Franct and at points with a No commission sign.

If you have converted any currency into euros, then a reverse exchange is possible only for an amount of 800 €. For exchanging dollars into euros, a large commission is charged - from 8 to 15%.

It is allowed to import into the country 1 liter of strong alcohol, 2 liters of wine, no more than 200 cigarettes, 500 grams of coffee, 50 ml of perfume or 250 ml of eau de toilette, 2 kg of fish and 1 kg of meat. All food products must have an expiration date on them. If you are bringing medications with you, it is advisable to have a prescription. Personal jewelry weighing up to 500 grams is not indicated in the declaration, but if the weight of jewelry exceeds this norm, all jewelry must be declared.

It is prohibited to export items of cultural and historical value without special permission, pornographic publications, weapons, ammunition, and drugs. You cannot export endangered species of animals and plants.

Electricity in France is standard - 220 volts, European-style sockets.

Museums in France are closed on Mondays. National museums do not work on Tuesdays.

Time in France is 2 hours behind Moscow.

Accommodation

Like all Western European countries, France has adopted a five-star service rating system. In any, even the most modest hotel, you will be provided with a standard set of services and decent service. An average “three” will cost from 40 to 100 € per night, depending on the region and proximity to attractions.

Guesthouses are popular in the country, often found in rural areas or small towns. This is an ideal and inexpensive place for a family holiday.

Lovers of antiquity and exoticism can choose grand hotels located in former palaces and ancient castles. Exquisite interiors and food from the best French restaurants will make you feel like a real aristocrat.

Bed and breakfast hotels are ideal for budget-conscious travelers.

Students can stay in youth hotels or university dormitories, but a room here must be booked in advance.

Tourists traveling by car can stay in comfortable campsites, which are necessarily equipped with a shower, laundry, and some have a cafe, swimming pool and bicycle rental.

Connection

There are countless payphones in France, which you can use by purchasing a Telecarte card at the post office or any tobacco kiosk. Payphones that accept coins - point-phones - have also been preserved. If you need to call home, dial 00, then the country code (Russia code 7), the desired city code and the subscriber's phone number.

Emergency telephone numbers:

• Ambulance - 15
• Fire service - 18
• Pan-European Rescue Service - 112

You will receive any necessary information by calling reference number 12. Help desk in Russian - 01-40-07-01-65.

Wi-Fi points are everywhere - on the streets, in cafes, bars, post offices, and transport stations.

Transport

France has well-developed air and rail connections. High-speed trains, although not cheap, are very comfortable and save a lot of time. If you plan to travel by train a lot, purchase an InterRail pass, which gives you unlimited travel.

Local taxis have two tariffs - A (0.61 €/km) valid from 7 am to 7 pm from Monday to Saturday, tariff B (3 €/km) - at night and on weekends and holidays. There is a separate charge for boarding a taxi - 2.5 € and each piece of luggage - 1 €. Taxis are found at special stands or ordered by phone.

Public transport is efficient, in particular buses and trams. The schedule is strictly observed, all equipment is modern and convenient.

Renting a car will cost from 50 € per day; the driver must be over 21 years old and have more than a year of driving experience. To register a lease, you will need international rights and credit card, on which a certain amount is blocked as collateral, usually 300 €. The cheapest car rental companies are easyCar and Sixti.

Safety and rules of conduct

The rate of violent crime in France is relatively low, but theft of personal property is high. Be especially vigilant in places where there is a large concentration of pickpockets - at the airport, in public transport, in museums, in crowded places near attractions. It is recommended to leave large amounts of cash and valuables in the hotel safe. If you are traveling by car, do not put things on the front seat. It is dangerous to carry bags over your shoulder - they can be snatched by thieves riding high-speed motorcycles.

The sleeping areas are safe at all times, except for some, and are inhabited mainly by people from Africa and Arab countries.

It will be very useful to learn at least a few frequently used words in French before your trip. Most French people are sure that a decent foreigner should be able to communicate in their native dialect. There are often cases when local residents demonstratively do not understand English spoken to them.

There are always a lot of police on the streets. They will always come to the aid of a traveler suffering from an attack of topographical inferiority.

The country has introduced a strict ban on smoking in public places.

How to get there

There are several flights to Paris every day from Moscow, St. Petersburg and major Russian cities. Charles de Gaulle International Airport is located 25 kilometers from Paris; in 45 minutes and 30 € you can reach the French capital. A more economical way is by train or bus.

Traveling by train will be more expensive and will take two days. In addition, you will have to travel with a transfer in Germany or Belgium.

There are many inexpensive, up to 80 €, bus routes to France, but such a trip is not very comfortable, in addition, crossing the borders of Belarus, Poland and Germany can take a lot of time.

200,000 - 35,000 years ago, all of present-day France was inhabited by Neanderthals who had the skills of stone processing using the “Levallois technique”. At sites dating back to this period of history, found near the French cities of Les Eyzies (fr. Les Eyzies-de-Tayac-Sireuil ) and Moustier (fr. Moustier ), in the Dordogne department numerous stone tools were found: side scrapers, handaxes, hammers, chisels. From the drawings left on the walls of the caves, it can be concluded that people of that time hunted bison, bison, wolves, horses and deer. The oldest French burials were also discovered here: the dead were buried in pits measuring 1.4 x 1 x 0.3 meters along with offerings in the form of stone tools, food, etc.

Celtic period

The increasing density of settlement of the territory and the inevitable contacts of nomadic tribes with their neighbors led to the mixing and mutual enrichment of their cultures. By the beginning of the 1st millennium BC, in the center of Europe (see map), a stable community of tribes of Indo-European origin, similar in language and material culture and currently called “Celts”, had formed. It is believed that the spread of Celtic tribes in Europe occurred in two major stages. In the first stage, which took place from 1500 to 700. BC e., the advance of the Celts to the eastern part of modern France was predominantly peaceful. Initially nomadic with their herds of domestic animals, in 1200-900 BC. e. The Celts began to settle on the occupied land and began to cultivate it. It was at this time that the Celts had their first permanent settlements, fortified from attacks by hostile tribes.

At the end of the 8th century BC. e. the Celts mastered iron processing techniques (see article Iron Age). With the advent of iron swords and war horses, a layer of military aristocracy emerges among the Celts, which leads to colossal changes in social structure tribes that were previously engaged only in cultivating the land and were built on the principles of general equality. In the graves of noble warriors, such as in the village of Vix (Fr. Vix ) in the Côte d'Or department (fr. Cote-d'Or) in the French region of Burgundy (fr. Bourgogne)), archaeologists found luxurious carts. In these same burials, scientists have discovered luxury items made in different parts of the Mediterranean (in particular, from Egypt), which gives an idea of ​​the scale of the wealth of the Celtic aristocracy and the level of development of trade of that era.

The further development of trade led to the creation of Greek sailors of their “representative offices” along the entire Mediterranean coast. So, around 600 BC. e. Phocian Greeks founded the city of Massalia (lat. Massilia, Greek Μασσαλία ), in our time - Marseille (fr. Marseille). The rapid growth of this settlement was ensured by the massive migration of Greeks from Phokis during its siege by the Persians around 550 BC. e. Massalia became one of the centers of trade and widespread Greek influence on the European part of the continent.

The second stage of the spread of the Celts to the western part of Europe began with the period of the La Tène culture in the 6th century BC. e. This time is characterized by significant changes in the way of life of the Celtic tribes. The divided military nobility gives way to soldiers recruited from ordinary peasants and under the leadership of a tribal leader, and the wooden plow is replaced by the plow with an iron coulter, which made it possible to cultivate the hard soil of the central and northern part of modern France. These changes made it possible to conquer and develop new lands, which, in turn, led to an increase in population and the need for new conquests. The military activity of the Celts interrupted trade ties centered on Marseille for a whole century, but by the end of the 4th century BC. e. the city regained its former influence in the trade sphere, which is confirmed by ancient Greek ceramic products and coins discovered by archaeologists throughout the Rhine Valley, the Alps and even Lorraine.

At the beginning of the 3rd century BC. e. the Celtic lands were invaded by Belgian tribes who came from the south and west of modern Germany, and by 250 BC. e. captured the Massif Central and Languedoc. Despite the territorial losses, the Celtic civilization was experiencing rapid development at this time and was approaching the highest point of its prosperity: fortified cities (oppidum - lat. oppidum, plural oppida), which in their power and size cannot be compared with previous structures, and money is actively circulated within the state.

For the 2nd century BC. e. characterized by the dominance in Europe of the Celtic tribe Arverni, distinguished by their military power and the wealth of the leaders, as well as the deep penetration, initially only economic, of the Romans into the southern part of Gaul: from the results of archaeological excavations it can be seen that during the 2nd century BC. e. Greek amphorae are almost going out of use, giving way to Italian ones, and the inhabitants of the Greek colony of Marseille are increasingly turning to Rome for protection from Celto-Ligurian raids and Arverni oppression. However, the Romans did not limit themselves to trade relations with the Gauls and organized military expansion into their lands.

Roman Gaul

Historical maps of France. Table I. I. Gaul under Yu. Caesar. II. Gaul under Augustus. III. Gaul in 476 IV. Frankish kingdom. V. Formation of the monarchy of Charlemagne.

The territory of present-day France in ancient times was part of Transalpine Gaul, as the Romans called the country bounded by the Mediterranean Sea, the Pyrenees, the Atlantic Ocean, the English Channel, the Rhine and the Alps. The Romans established themselves first in the southern, coastal strip of this vast territory, to unite Italy with Spain, and gave the conquered area the name Narbonese Gaul (about 120 BC). From here in 58-50. BC e. Julius Caesar conquered the other three parts, which were called Aquitaine (according to the Garonne), Celtic Gaul (according to the Loire and Seine) and Belgian (from the Seine to the Rhine; see Table I, Map I).

Medieval France

First royal dynasty in the Frankish state the Merovingians are considered (late 5th century - 751). The dynasty was named after the semi-legendary founder of the family - Merovey. The most famous representative is Clovis I (ruled from 481 to 511, from 486 king of the Franks). The last is considered to be Childeric III (ruled from 743 to 751, died in 754). Their capital from 561 was Metz. Since 751, the Frankish state was ruled by the Carolingians. Despite being called Roman emperors since 800, the capital of the Carolingians was the city of Aachen. The Frankish Empire split into three parts in 843.

Historical maps of France. Table II. VI. France in 987 VII. France in 1180 VIII. France in 1328 IX. France in the 14th and 15th centuries.

France also had a region outside Gaul - south of the Pyrenees (Spanish Mark of Charlemagne). During the last Carolingians, France began to split into feudal possessions, and with the accession of the Capetian dynasty to the throne (in 987; see Table II, Map VI) there were nine main possessions in the kingdom: 1) County of Flanders, 2) Duchy of Normandy, 3 ) Duchy of France, 4) Duchy of Burgundy, 5) Duchy of Aquitaine (Guienne), 6) Duchy of Gascony, 7) County of Toulouse, 8) Marquisate of Gothia and 9) County of Barcelona (Spanish Mark). Over time, fragmentation went even further; From the named possessions, new ones emerged, of which the most significant were the counties of Brittany, Blois, Anjou, Troyes, Nevers, and Bourbon.

The immediate possession of the first kings of the Capetian dynasty was a narrow territory stretching north and south of Paris and very slowly expanding in different directions; during the first two centuries (987-1180) it only doubled (cf. Table II, maps VI and VII). At the same time, most of what was then France was under the rule of the English kings.

The era of the estate monarchy

The era of absolute monarchy

France in 1789-1914

Main article: History of France (1789-1914)

The French Revolution ( -)

Since the last third of the 18th century, Europe entered a period of revolutions (Belgium, the Netherlands). Previously, the revolution in France was considered bourgeois, but in the 60-70s. XX century began to believe that different segments of the population participated in it. Capitalism began to develop earlier. Many seigneurial farms have already switched to the capitalist mode. The industrial bourgeoisie itself was economically weak. It is sometimes said that this was a movement for civil liberty against the tyranny of the Bourbons.

The monarchy tried to adapt to the emerging conditions, but this caused discontent among the nobility. Louis XVI carried out reforms for freedom of capitalist relations. For example, in the mid-80s he adopted tax reforms that included the elimination tax benefits for the nobility and clergy. In 1787, a meeting of the Notables was convened, at which the Comptroller General of Finance (the head of the executive branch) proposed the introduction of a unified land tax. The notables demanded his resignation. Necker was appointed, who suggested that Louis XVI convene the Estates General, which had not been convened since 1614, to support the reforms. They opened on May 5, 1789. The first conflict arose over the procedural issue of how to vote.

First stage of the revolution: June 17, 1789 - October 5-6, 1789

Second Empire (1852-1870)

After Napoleon III was captured by the Germans near Sedan (September) during the Franco-Prussian War, the National Assembly meeting in Bordeaux deposed him (September Revolution), and the Second Empire ceased to exist.

Third Republic (1870-1914)

An attempt to resist German troops advancing on the French capital led to the establishment of the Paris Commune between March 18 and May 28, 1871, which was defeated after 72 days of existence.

At the end of the 19th century. France made major colonial conquests, taking part in the "Race for Africa", and became the owner of the world's second largest colonial empire. The Fashoda crisis in 1898 brought France to the brink of war with Great Britain, but war was avoided. French Indochina was created. In 1881, France established a protectorate over Tunisia, in 1893 over Laos, and in 1912 over most of Morocco.

In 1891, an agreement was signed to create a Franco-Russian union. In 1904, an agreement on the alliance between France and Great Britain was signed. This is how the Entente came to be.

World War I

Interwar period

In 1924, a new coalition government of socialists and radicals, chaired by Edouard Herriot, came to power in France. The country began an economic recovery.

On May 13, 1958, there was a military mutiny in Algeria led by General Jacques Massu, who demanded the transfer of power to de Gaulle. On June 1, 1958, de Gaulle formed a new government. That same year, the constitution of the Fifth Republic was adopted in a referendum, expanding the rights of the executive branch. De Gaulle was elected president.

see also

• France in 2000 (Future World cards)
• History of France (1789-1914)

Notes

1. Catalog of the main human sites in the Stone Age
2. Here is the most widely used translation of the city name. In some cases, the city name is translated Shiyak(see article Communes of the Charente department). In relation to the name of the ancient site, the term is used Shiyak(see article Europe in the Stone Age and the work of V. S. Titov)
3. Some scientists question the man-made nature of the objects found there.
4. This name is given by TSB. According to some sources the correct name is Gyuntskoye
5. MEMO - History resource (French)
6. "Knowledge is power". 1978 No. 3
7. See also Combarel's article
8. See also the article Mousterian culture
9. Bernard Vandermeersh, "Cro-Magnon (homme de)" in Dictionnaire de la Préhistoire, ed. André Leroi-Gourhan, Presses universitaires de France, Paris, (French)
10. For example, in French city Karnak (fr. Carnac ) 2,935 menhirs stretched over 4 kilometers.
11. Jan Philip. Celtic civilization and its heritage
12. Here is the most widely used translation of the village name. In some cases, the city name is translated In and(see article Communes of the Côte d'Or department)
13. One of the most important political forces of that time were the Romans, from whose written heritage modern scientists draw the most accurate information about the culture and life of Europe. In Roman sources, the Celts are called Gauls, and the lands, according to the Romans, occupied by these tribes are called Gaul. And despite the fact that Gaul, whose borders are described by the Romans, is much more extensive than the Celtic possessions, in modern literature (especially popular science) these concepts are accepted as identical.
14. French court recognizes French participation in the Holocaust

Literature

The most complete bibliography on the history of pre-revolutionary France was published in 1888 by G. Monod (see), under the title “Bibliographie de l’histoire de France” (cf. Historiography in France). Wed. also M. Petrov, “National historiography in France, Germany and England” (1861).

General essays. Simonde de Sismondi, "Histoire des Français" (1821-44); Monteil, "Histoire des Français des divers états"; Michelet, "Histoire de France" (1845-67); H. Martin, “Histoire de France” (1856 sq.); Guizot, “Histoire de France, racontée à mes petits enfants” (1870-75); Rambaud, "Hist. de la civilization française" and "Histoire de la civilization contemporaine" (1888); E. Lavisse (in collaboration with a number of scientists), “Histoire de France depuis les origines jusqu"à la révolution” (1901 et seq.; this work has just begun to appear).

Atlas: Lognon, “Atlas historique de la France” (1888); general historical atlases by Droysen, Schrader and others. In German literature - E. A. Schmidt, “Geschichte von Frankreich” (1839-49), with continuation by Wachsmuth.

Earliest period - see Gaul and Gauls. Frankish period - see Frankish Kingdom, Merovingians and Carolingians. Feudalism - see the article about it for historiography and bibliographical information. The era of growth of royal power - see Capetians, Communes, Third Estate, Parliaments, Government officials, Hundred Years' War. The era of reformation of the Catholic religion and the wars of religion - see Huguenots and Reformation. Age of royal absolutism - see Richelieu, Louis XIII, XIV, XV and XVI.

History of France in the 19th century: Gregoire, “History of France in the 19th century.” (1893 et ​​seq.); Rochau, “History of France from the overthrow of Napoleon I to the restoration of the empire” (1865); N. Kareev, “Political history of France in the 19th century.” (1901; this work contains a detailed bibliography of all books and articles in Russian).

The era of consulate and empire - see Napoleonic Wars, Napoleon as commander. Restoration - see Louis XVIII and the Revolution. July Monarchy - see Louis Philippe and the Revolution.

The February Revolution and the Second Republic: L. Stein, “Geschochte der socialen Bewegung in Frankreich” (1850); D. Stern, “Histoire de la révolution de 1848”; Ch. Robin (same title); De la Hodde, “La naissance de la république de 1848” (1850); Pierre, "Histoire de la république de 1848" (1873-74); De la Gorce, “Histoire de la deuxième république française” (1887); Spuller, “Histoire parlementaire de la deuxième république” (1891); K. Marx, “Die Klassenkämpfe in Frankreich von 1848 bis 1850” (1895).

A Brief History of France

The ancestors of the modern French people were the Germanic tribes of the Franks who lived on the banks of the Rhine in the 3rd century. However, the history of the French territory began much earlier, in the prehistoric period. Research has shown that Pithecanthropus inhabited the lands of Gaul about 1 million years ago. Over time, they were replaced by homosapiens, that is, the ancestors modern man. There is practically no information about this period.

The Celtic period in France began around the 10th century BC. and lasted for several centuries. In the 2nd century BC. The Roman era began. Since the Romans called the Celts Gauls, the country began to be called Gaul. Gaul occupied vast territories, from the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea. With the arrival of the Romans, the Latin language and Roman way of life came into use, but Celtic culture and art survived.

In the middle of the 5th century, the power of the Roman governors weakened, and the Early Middle Ages began. During this period, France broke up into dozens of small kingdoms. The Rhine region was ruled by the Burgundians, the Franks in the north, and Roman rule still remained in the east. Unity in the country was achieved only under Charles I. This ruler was called the Great during his lifetime. IN 800 year he was elected emperor of the Roman Empire. Unfortunately, after his death, his descendants began to fight for the inheritance, which greatly weakened Western Europe.

The Late Middle Ages began in the 12th century, a controversial era for the French people. On the one hand, it was a time of heyday for art, poetry, and architecture, but on the other hand, serious crises were observed. Thus, in the 14th century, plague epidemics broke out everywhere, and the Hundred Years' War with England began. However, the strife in the country did not end after this war. During the reign of the Valois dynasty, clashes began between Catholics and Huguenots, ending with the Night of St. Bartholomew 24 August 1572. That night, about 30 thousand people died in the massacre of the Huguenots.

After Valois, the Bourbons came to power. The first king from this dynasty was Henry IV (1589-1610). During his reign, a law on religious tolerance was adopted. Cardinal Richelieu, who had actual power during the time of Louis XIII, did a lot for the good of the country. He managed to raise the prestige of France in Europe. The following rulers significantly weakened the country's economy through wars and thoughtless amusements. As a result, a revolution began in the country, the result of which was a coup 1799 of the year. From this moment the period of Napoleon's reign began. After conducting several successful and then failed military campaigns, he was overthrown.

WITH 1814 The period of restoration of the monarchy began. First Louis XVIII came to power, then Charles X, and after him Louis Philippe d'Orléans. In the middle of the 19th century, another revolution took place, after which power passed to the Provisional Government. This change of rulers occurred until France received the status of a republic for the fifth time and appointed General de Gaulle as president. (1959-1969). It was he who was involved in liberating the country from the German occupiers and restoring economic balance.

see also: All short stories states, cities, events
Abstracts on history

Flag of France

Coat of arms of France

France, the official name is the French Republic. France is a country in the west of the Eurasian continent. Western Europe.

The capital of France is the city of Paris. In the west, France is washed by the Atlantic Ocean with its seas and bays and straits. In the west by the Bay of Biscay, in the northwest by the Celtic Sea, in the north by the English Channel. In the south, the French shores are washed by the warm Mediterranean Sea. The territory of France is 547,030 sq. km, with overseas and dependent territories 674,685 sq. km. France ranks 48th in the world by area, 3rd in Europe and first in Western Europe. In the south-west, France borders on Spain and Andorra, in the east on Monaco, Italy, Switzerland, Germany, Luxembourg and Belgium.

In the north, France, divided by the English Channel, borders Great Britain. Administratively, France is divided into the metropolis (the continental part of the state), and overseas possessions and dependent territories belonging to France.

Administrative divisions of France:

• 18 regions with 5 overseas territories included
• 101 departments, of which five are overseas
• 336 districts
• 2074 cantons
• 36,658 communes
• The three largest French communes - Paris, Marseille and Lyon - are in turn divided into 45 municipal or urban districts.

  The cities of Paris have 20 arrondissements, Marseille 16, and Lyon 9 arrondissements.

Paris, as the capital of France, is a separate department and consists of a single commune.

The overseas regions of France (Guadeloupe, Martinique, French Guiana, Reunion, Mayotte) consist of a single department.

The island of Corsica, which is also a separate region, includes 2 departments and has a special status as an administrative-territorial entity, different from other regions of the metropolis (continental France). It has independent governing bodies that are not subordinate to the center.

In 2003, a referendum on the unification of the two departments of Corsica failed. All these regions are part of the European Union.

Regions of continental (Metropolitan) France:

• New Aquitaine - Bordeaux
• Brittany - Rennes
• Burgundy - Franche-Comté - Dijon
• Normandy - Rouen
• Ile-de-France - Paris
• Corsica - Ajaccio
• Occitania - Toulouse
• Grand Est - Strasbourg
• Hauts-de-France - Lille
• Auvergne - Rhone - Alps - Lyon
• Loire Land - Nantes
• Provence - Alps - Cote d'Azur - Marseille
• Center - Loire Valley - Orleans

Overseas regions:

• Guadeloupe - Basse-Terre
• Guiana - Cayenne
• Martinique - Fort-de-France
• Reunion - Saint Denis
• Mayotte - Mamoudzou

France is a highly developed European country with high level the life of the population has succeeded and is one of the world leaders in economic, scientific, technical, industrial, educational and humanitarian fields of activity.

France is of great political and economic importance both in the world and in Europe. In Europe, France has the second largest economy after Germany. France is a nuclear power with both nuclear capabilities and means of delivering nuclear weapons. France is a member of the UN and is one of the five permanent members of the UN with veto rights. France, with its developed economy, is also one of the most important members of the EU.

France is also a space power, having its own spaceport in French Guiana from which it launches its missiles.

Also in French Guiana, in joint cooperation with Russia, an additional Russian-French launch complex is being built for joint launches of Russian missiles. Along with all the scientific, technical, industrial and political-economic achievements, France has unique cultural and historical values ​​of world significance accumulated over many millennia of development of European civilization.

France has given the world many great names in all fields of human activity.

Many world-famous museums and libraries in France contain world masterpieces of painting, sculpture, music and literature from all over the world. The Louvre alone is worth something with its priceless collections of world culture. France is also a world tourism power. Hundreds of millions of tourists visit French attractions every year. There is probably not a single tourist who would not take a photo in front of the Eiffel Tower, which is both a national treasure and a calling card of France.

France is also famous for its Cote d'Azur on the Mediterranean coast with its unique resorts that annually attract tens of millions of tourists from all over the world to pamper their bodies under the warm, gentle sun.

France also has many natural attractions both on the coast and in the central and mountainous regions of the country.

A Brief History of France

Home / Countries / France / History of France

History of France. France: main historical events

People inhabited the territory of France, presumably, 1.8 million years ago.

In France, many cave paintings have remained since the Paleolithic era. The first colony on French territory was founded by the Greeks in 600 BC.

in the city then called Massalia, now called Marseille.

The expansion of the Celtic Gaulish tribes into France occurred between the fifth and third centuries BC, during which much of the borders of modern France were drawn.

The area was then known as Gaul, and its inhabitants, the Gauls, were at odds with the Romans until the Romans captured the southern part of their country (Provence) in 125 BC.

The Franks, an ancient German pagan tribe from which the name "France" originated, settled in and later conquered Gaul, dividing the territory into four regions for the sons of the Frankish king Clovis I. These kingdoms were later united by Charlemagne.

France played an important role during the Crusades between 1095 and 1291.

Between 1337 and 1453, France and England had a series of conflicts called the Hundred Years' War, after which several civil wars, called the "Fronde", at the same time there was a war with Spain, between 1635 and 1659.

During the time of European exploration, France founded colonies in the New World.

Under the leadership of Louis XV, the Seven Years' War (1756-1763) in the New World ended with the loss of the territories of New France and their conquest by Britain. As a result, France became the main ally of the American colonists during American Revolution fighting for independence from Britain, which eventually led to the Peace of Paris in 1783.

Between 1789 and 1799, the French Revolution took place, ending with the storming of the Bastille on July 14, 1789, as a result of which the absolute monarchy ended in France and a constitutional monarchy emerged.

The French Revolutionary Wars began in 1792, the same year France became a republic. King Louis XVI was executed in 1793 for treason, as was his wife, Marie Antoinette.

In 1799, Napoleon Bonaparte came to power in the Republic, who later became emperor.

The French Empire began to conquer Europe, under Napoleon's leadership, until his defeat in 1815.

During the nineteenth century, France became the second largest colonial power of all time, with colonies in North America, Southeast Asia, Northern, Western, and Central Africa, in the Caribbean, and on the Pacific Islands.

Many of these colonies are still part of the French Republic. France played an important role in both World War I and World War II, and was one of the founders of NATO in 1949.

History of France

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How France came to be

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To the north of Languedoc stretched a country that was conquered in ancient times by the barbarian Franks - it was called Francia or France.

In the 8th century, the Franks were the first to create heavy knightly cavalry, and the great Emperor Charles subjugated half of Europe - but Charles’s weak successors could not restrain the willfulness of the knights.

Cheat Sheet: History of France in Modern Times

The once powerful state fell apart into countless duchies, counties, baronies, and each owner of the castle considered himself the master of the area and master over the life and death of his peasants. Castles, which were formerly log towers, turned into stone fortresses with double walls, moats and drawbridges in the 12th century; Above each castle stood an iron weather vane with the coat of arms of the owner - and France had more than ten thousand such owners.

The lords fought among themselves, burned other people's villages, robbed on the roads; in times of relative peace, according to the old custom, they gathered at congresses and enthroned kings. In 987, they elected Duke Hugh Capet, ruler of the Ile-de-France, a region stretching from Paris to Orleans, as king of the Franks.

Hugo Capet was not the master even in his duchy, and his successors had to start with the subordination of the local barons, who considered themselves to have every right to fight with the “king of the Franks.”

Nevertheless, the Capetians managed to retain the crown: they made it a rule during the king’s life to gather congresses of the nobility for the coronation of the heir - and the nobility did not resist this, because they did not take the royal title seriously.

By the beginning of the 12th century, the kings had brought order to their “domain”, Ile-de-France, destroyed many castles and expelled rebellious barons.

Bishops of neighboring regions began to turn to them for help: the church had long tried to stop private wars and establish “God’s peace” - now it had acquired a strong ally, the king. Local cathedrals imposed excommunication on the barons who ravaged the area and called upon the royal soldiers against them, who moved siege towers to the walls of the castles and smashed the gates with battering rams.

The cities, trying to free themselves from the power of the lords, also sought an alliance with the king; with the permission of the king, they proclaimed themselves communes and paid a lot of money for support. Money, in turn, made it possible to hire soldiers - after all, the word “soldier” comes from the soldo coin; hired crossbowmen and mounted "sergeants" were much more disciplined than the vassal knights, whose service lasted only forty days a year.

HISTORY OF THE STATE AND LAW OF FRANCE IN MODERN TIMES

plan

French state of the early period of the 18th century revolution

Gironde Republic

Jacobin Republic

Thermal Republic

Legal monarchy

Another republic

Other empires

Rehabilitation of the Republic

Paris Commune in 1871

Third Republic

The French state of the early period of the revolution of the 18th century.

The beginning of the revolution.

Root, deep reason revolution, was the contradiction between the productive forces and the feudal production coefficients that prevailed in the country that reached its peak. Feudalism could no longer ensure their further growth and objectively transform into their inhibition. People felt this primarily due to the strengthening of feudal oppression.

Even most of the industrialists, merchants and traders were not satisfied with their situation.

Significant taxes and duties were applied, mainly related to the maintenance of the royal court and privileged ownership.

A brief history of France by dates for schoolchildren. For short and only important events

The government repeatedly carried out the so-called "pressed sponges": the entrepreneur grew up without forgery, mostly illegally, was thrown into prison and released only after giving them a large ransom.

The domestic market was extremely narrow for the industry, since the farmer (the majority of the country's population) bought almost no manufactured goods. A large number of internal customs hindered trade. Production was hampered by trade regulations.

Foreign trade, especially colonial trade, was artificially concentrated in the hands of a small group of privileged traders who shared their income with the aristocratic nobility.

Most of the nobility and the high priest tried to maintain the existing system. The main weapon of its defense is not without reason seen in the feudal absolutist state.

Meanwhile, the country has matured in understanding the need for profound changes. For them, this is also the bourgeoisie, economically and politically the most influential and the most organized and, no less important, educated social group in protefedalističnem movements.

At that time in France, the bourgeoisie began to refer to bankers, tax farmers, manufacturers, merchants and even big businessmen; Before the bourgeoisie, the bourgeoisie were the indigenous people. Mainly due to financial and other support for the most famous works of the bourgeoisie, the ideologists of the Enlightenment - the theoretical thinkers of the movement, who were the subject of criticism of the feudal view in the world of writing - absolutist tyranny, class privileges, medieval superstitions and obscurantism.

The Enlightened People, on the other hand, are a reactionary ideology with a new political perspective that they wrote meets the demands of universal and timeless reason and justice. They studied the experience of the revolution in the Netherlands, England, and the USA, including the practice of state building in these countries. Their views on a number of problems differed, but were mainly united - in the need for serious state and legal reforms on a democratic basis.

In 1788

France was hit by a deep economic crisis. Due to the subsequent worsening of the harvest, famine was threatened by farmers and poor cities in most countries. Production was limited and thousands of city workers lost their jobs. Rural upheavals began, which soon spread to the cities. What was new about these events was that soldiers in several places refused to move against the people.

Transformation of the general states into a constitutional assembly.

In a situation where, according to one of the ministers, “there is no obedience and cannot be persuaded by the army,” the government was forced to refuse concessions. He announced the convening of general states, which had not been formed for more than 150 years.

According to ruling circles, countries should help monarchies overcome financial difficulties by adopting new taxes. But other hopes lie in the “third property” of the common states, which proposed to bring about important changes in the social and national system of France.

The mandates of their deputies - representatives of the great bourgeoisie - require restrictions on royal tyranny, the introduction of the right to approve the budget, supervision of its execution, the establishment of strict laws in the activities of administrative bodies and courts, the elimination of guild rules, the improvement difficult situation farmers and others.

In May 1789, the General Staff was opened. The ruling circles, which tried to maintain a pro-government majority, demanded compliance with the old voting order - each class has one vote.

Representatives of the third property did not agree with this. They requested that meetings not be held separately in the classroom, but that decisions be made by majority vote. members of the "third estate". Only in this way can they count on the success of their efforts, since the number is equal to the number of members of the privileged classes, and they hope (later events showed that they are not against) in the support of some members of the privileged classes (the liberal nobility and the lower clergy).

In response to the refusal, the government adopted a new voting procedure for members of the “third property” in June 1789, which was adopted by the National Assembly, a month later - in the Constituent Assembly, which, on behalf of the French people, demanded the right to repeal old laws and adopt new ones.

The Tsar and the nobles decided to dissolve the meeting. Troops were assembled at Versailles, where the meeting took place. There seemed to be nothing stopping the government from finding out what was planned.

The Constitutional Assembly saved the people. When Paris knew about the close mass murder with the anti-feudal movement, people in Paris rose to armed rebellion. Most of the soldiers soon went over to their side, and almost all of Paris was in the hands of the rebels.

On July 14, they attacked the royal fortress - the prison in the Bastille. The day the Bastille fell was essentially the birthday of the new France and is now celebrated as a national holiday.

A constitutional monarchy. The revolution, which began in Paris, soon captured the entire country. The rebels excommunicated royal officials, and farmers refused to perform feudal duties. In many provincial cities the old local authorities were abolished.

The vast majority of the forces fell under the obedience of the royal generals. The soldiers did not want to shoot people.

Those at the top of the "third estate" (big bourgeoisie) occupy a dominant position in constituent Assembly(i.e. in the capital), we used the popular movement to gain political power locally as well. new local communities were created - municipalities, where main role played by the richest man from the “third estate”.

At the same time, the bourgeoisie began to create its own armed forces.

The recruitment of the National Guard - territorial militia - was announced. Each national guard had to purchase expensive weapons and equipment at their own expense, which blocked access to the national guard for all affected citizens.

The Grand Bourgeoisie financed the acquisition of weapons, training, etc. In the National Guard, they appointed their men to command positions. The head of the National Guard was Marques M. J-Lafayette, a participant in the North American Revolutionary War, who supported moderate reforms, which were very popular in the country at that time.

As a result, the country found itself in the hands of a political group that objectively represented the interests of wealthy bourgeois and liberal nobles.

Its leaders - the Marquis of Lafayette - Abbot Sieys, the scientist, astronomer Bayly, the sociologist A. Barnave, A. Lamet and especially Count Mirabeau - a brilliant orator, but an unscrupulous politician - did not demand the complete elimination of the old system. Their ideal was a constitutional monarchy, which is why they were called constitutionalists.

Their political activity was based on attempts to reach agreement with the nobility on the basis of mutual concessions.

"Abolition of feudalism." At the Constitutional Assembly, the “abolition of feudalism” was solemnly proclaimed. However, the publication of this Law (August 1789) showed that the basic demands of the farmers were not met. This is due to the abolition of relatively small so-called personal feudal rights (service, right to a "dead hand", exclusive right to hunt, etc.). Given the free refusal of them, he easily agreed, especially since they were virtually lost - farmers had ignored them since the first days of the revolution.

Everything else: land rights and actual payments and benefits associated with agriculture, preserved, the land belongs to the lord.

Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen of 1789 On August 26, 1789, the founding assembly adopted the most important document of the revolution, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen.

Compiled as a program of revolution, according to the plan of the creators, they contribute to the world of people, preserving “fraternal unity.”

At the same time, its content largely depends on the specifics of the specific historical moment that the state is experiencing.

At that time, the political forces in the revolutionary camp did not run away, and the interest in the victory of the revolution was predetermined by the general direction of its anti-factional struggle. Some revolutionaries and their ideologists still believed in the possibility of the immediate triumph of the ideals of freedom, equality and fraternity. However, many wanted to see the Declaration as a set of abstract principles to which society should strive, but not necessarily for immediate implementation. “The objectives of the Declaration,” said one of its leading deputies, Dupont, in his speech before the Constitutional Assembly, to express the truth for all time and people.

That means, what if it was contrary to that part of the constitution that would be acceptable to us? “It is important that this statement does not contradict the ruling majority, but at the time of adoption of the declaration it provides an exception in the case of its most progressive provisions.

Homo sapiens began to inhabit Europe around 200 thousand years BC, but he died 30 thousand years ago, presumably during a period of cold weather. Around 2500 BC. The Celts came from Central Europe and settled in Gaul (French Gaul). The Celts were "iron" workers and dominated Gaul until 125 BC, while the Roman Empire began to dominate the south of France. The Greeks and Phoenicians established settlements along the Mediterranean Sea, especially at the site of modern Marseille (Marseille). Julius Caesar conquered part of Gaul in 57-52 BC, and it remained until the Roman Franks invaded in the 5th century AD.

Gaul was divided into seven provinces. The Romans feared for the population and began to force them out to avoid a threat to Roman integrity. This is why many Celts were transferred and driven out of Gaul. Many changes occurred during the course of cultural evolution in the Roman Empire, one of which was the change from Gaulish to Vernacular Latin, the similarities between one language and the other influencing the transition. Gaul has been under Roman control for centuries.

In 486, Clovis I, leader of the Franks, defeated Syagrius at Soissons, and thereafter united northern and central Gaul under his rule. Christianity in France began to develop when Clovis I adopted the Roman Catholic form of Christianity in 496. On the one hand, the reign of Clovis I brought stability and unity to France, but on the other hand it led to disunity, as Clovis I divided the territory as gifts and rewards.

Charles Martel was the first leader of the Carolingian dynasty and was responsible for expanding the Frankish kingdom and stopping the Muslim invasion. Charles was not only a military leader, but he was also a great supporter of education and the arts. During the reign of Charlemagne there was a period of Carolingian revival, but soon after his death the kingdom was divided.

Hugh Capet was elected to the throne of France, thus ending the Carolingian dynasty and beginning the Capetian dynasty. In 1066, William, Duke of Normandy invaded England and was crowned King of England on Christmas Day 1066. With the marriage of Eleanor, who was married to King Louis VII of France (French Louis VII) and married King Henry II of England (French Henry II), the western part of France came under British rule.

After the death of the last king of the Capetian dynasty, Charles IV (French: Charles IV), King Edward III of England ascended the throne and started the Hundred Years' War in 1337. With the help of the French peasant girl Joan of Arc, Charles VIII was victorious and drove the English back to Calais.

France became a centralized state, where an absolute monarchy was created with the doctrine of the Divine Right of Kings and the unequivocal support of the established church. The long Italian War (1494-1559) marked the beginning of early modern France. When Francis I was captured in Pavia, the French monarchy was forced to look for allies, and found Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman Admiral Barbarossa captured Nice on August 5, 1543 and handed it over to Francis I. In the 16th century, the Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs were the dominant power in Europe, controlling several duchies and kingdoms throughout Europe. Despite this, French became the preferred language of the European aristocracy.

At the beginning of the 16th century, Francis I strengthened the French crown. He also invited many Italian artists to France, such as Leonardo da Vinci, who was an Italian polymath: scientist, architect, mathematician, engineer, inventor, anatomist, engineer, painter, sculptor, musician and writer . Their influence guaranteed success in the Renaissance style.

From 1562 to 1598 there was an increase in the number of Protestants, which led to a war of religions between Catholics and Protestants. Catherine de Medici (French: Catherine de Medici), Queen of France, wife of King Henry II of France, ordered on St. Day. Bartholomew's massacre of hundreds of Protestants. Henry IV, of the Bourbon dynasty, issued the Edict of Nantes (1598), granting religious toleration to the Huguenots (French Protestants).

History of France from the 17th to the 19th centuries

The 17th century was a period of extravagance and power for the French monarchy. King Louis XIII (French: Louis XIII) and Cardinal Richelieu (French: Cardinal Richelieu) transformed the French feudal monarchy into an absolute monarchy. The French king most associated with this period is Louis XIV.

Also known as the Sun King, Louis XIV consolidated his power over all the local princes and lords, where he administered the complex judgment of life in his palace at Versailles. The purpose of this court of life is to maintain power over the local princes and lords and not undermine Louis's power. This period is also famous for the brilliant writers, architects and musicians who were promoted by the royal court. Louis XIV's extravagances, costly foreign wars that weakened the government, plunged France into economic and financial crisis. Louis XIV died in 1715 and Louis XV ascended the throne. The bourgeoisie began to demand more political rights, and this became big problem for Louis's successors.

France was the scene of much of the fighting during the French Revolution in early 1789, and also created the first Republic and the period of authoritarianism of Napoleon Bonaparte (French: Napoleon Bonaparte), who successfully defended the nascent republic from the enemy, and later became first consul in 1799 and emperor in 1804. The Congress of Vienna (1815) tried to restore the pre-Napoleonic order in the person of King Louis XVIII, but industrialization and the middle class, dominated by Napoleon, demanded change, and finally Louis Philippe, the last of the Bourbons, was overthrown in 1848.

In 1852, Prince Louis Napoleon, nephew of Napoleon I, declared the Second Empire and took the throne as Napoleon III. However, Louis Napoleon was against the growing power of Prussia, and that the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871) broke out, and when the war ended with his defeat, he abdicated the throne.

Thus, the monarchy in France came to an end by 1871 and the Third Republic was created. In 1889, what are now some of the most impressive and visited monuments in the entire world were built. The Eiffel Tower was built to celebrate the centenary of the French Revolution. Great and important contributions in the nineteenth century were made by impressionist paintings, art nouveau, the satirist Emile Zola and the novelist Gustave Flaubert.

History of France in the 21st century

During the First World War, French troops and the army suffered heavy losses, the north-east of France was turned into ruins, but despite this France gained European power. Beginning in 1919, France's goal was to keep Germany as far away from its territory as possible, and a system of border defenses and alliances was developed. But, unfortunately, this was not enough, and on May 10, 1940, at the beginning of World War II, the Nazis attacked and occupied Paris, the Italians entered with German troops. On July 10, 1940, the Vichy Government was created. In August 1944, France was finally liberated by Allied forces, and the provisional government of Charles de Gaulle was created. The Fourth Republic was formed on December 24, 1946. France joined NATO.

But in May 1968, many violent student protests and factory strikes undermined the government of Charles de Gaulle. The following year, de Gaulle's policy was changed by his successor Georges Pompidou to a policy of non-intervention in relation to domestic economic issues. The conservative, pro-business climate contributed to the election of Valery Giscard d'Estaing as president in 1974.

Socialist François Mitterrand won the 1981 presidential election. In the first two years of the government, there was 12% inflation and a devaluation of the franc. In 1995, a new president, Jacques Chirac, was elected. French leaders are increasingly linking France's future to the further development of the European Union. France is one of the founding partners of the European Union, as well as the largest site of all partners. During his tenure as president, Mitterrand emphasized the importance of European integration and advocated the ratification of the Maastricht Treaty on European economic and political union with French voters narrowly approved in September 1992. In 2002, he was re-elected for a second term.

Nicolas Sarkozy, the 23rd president of France, was elected president on May 6, 2007, replacing Jacques Chirac as head of state. In the Presidential elections on May 6, 2012, he lost to the socialist candidate Francois Hollande. Nicolas Sarkozy is preparing to nominate his candidacy in the upcoming 2017 presidential elections in France. Francois Hollande defeated Sarkozy in the second round. On May 15, 2012, he took the oath of office at the Elysee Palace, thus becoming the 24th President of France and automatically the 7th President of the Fifth French Republic.

France is developed country with the sixth largest economy in the world. Its fundamental ideals are expressed in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. France is also a founding member of the United Nations and a member of the Latin Union, the French language countries and the G8. France is one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council, possessing the right of veto, and is also a recognized nuclear power. It is considered one of the great powers after World War II. France is the most popular international tourist destination in the world, visited annually by over 75 million foreign tourists.

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