What does vocabulary and phraseology study? Definition of vocabulary and phraseology. Examples. Lesson topic: “Folk vocabulary and phraseology” Folk vocabulary and phraseological units
The word and its lexical meaning. Polysemy of the word. Using words in a figurative meaning.
Emotionally charged and expressive vocabulary. Synonyms. Antonyms. Homonyms.
Archaisms, historicisms, neologisms.
Professional vocabulary.
Terminology. Borrowed, dialectal and argotic vocabulary.
Lexical errors (misunderstanding of the meaning of a word; use of another word that is similar in sound or meaning instead of the required word; use of a word with inappropriate stylistic connotation; piling up of unnecessary words; repetition of the same or cognate words, logical errors in the relationship of concepts, etc.) and their correction.
The concept of phraseology.
Use of phraseological units in speech. Errors in the use of phraseological units (incorrect combinations of verbs with nouns; lexical substitutions; crossing phraseological units that are close in meaning; changing the accepted grammatical form of words included in circulation) and their elimination.
Must know : the purpose of a word in a language, the reasons for the obsolescence of words and the emergence of new ones, the role of phraseological units in speech.
Must be able to : determine the lexical meaning of a word, select synonyms, antonyms, words with a figurative meaning for the word and use it in speech, distinguish between phraseological units and use them in speech, find and correct lexical errors and errors in the use of phraseological units.
Practical exercises
Determining the different meanings of words, finding synonyms, antonyms, homonyms, arranging words according to increasing and decreasing degrees of attribute, correcting lexical errors.
METHODOLOGICAL INSTRUCTIONS
Vocabulary is the entirety of a language, its vocabulary.
A word differs in its sound design, its morphological structure and the meaning or meaning contained in it.
Lexical meaning of the word- this is its content, i.e. historically fixed in the minds of speakers the correlation between a sound complex and an object or phenomenon of reality.
The meaning of words gives us the opportunity to distinguish one object from another.
The lexical meaning of a word can be unique (such words are called unambiguous), and may coexist with other lexical meanings of the same word (such words are called multi-valued).
So the word core in modern Russian it has several meanings: 1) the inner part of the fruit in the hard shell; 2) the basis of something; 3) neutral part of something; 4) an ancient projectile in the form of a round cast body.
Even though the word core has several meanings, it is still one word, because its individual meanings are based on associations of similarity.
Despite the different meanings of words reap friend's hand and shoes they're tight in the rise, they are connected in meaning - to squeeze, squeeze, compress.
Thus, a word can have several meanings, but it is still one word, because its individual meanings are based on some general associations (by similarity, by contiguity, by function).
Read A. Shibaev's poem "It's coming! - That's what we're talking about...":
He told me: “To the cinema? It’s coming!”
He didn’t ask: “What’s going on?” -
Like, this is not relevant.
I give the ticket and he goes.
(Oh, how the suit suits him!)
Our street goes into the distance.
The tram is going down the street.
And it's raining outside.
And he goes on foot.
He works hard towards his goal.
It's coming! - That's what we're talking about...
How many meanings do you think the word has? is it coming? Now find this word in the Explanatory Dictionary and see how many meanings it has.
If the close unity between meanings is lost, then new words are formed that denote different concepts. This is one of the ways in which homonyms arise.
Homonyms- these are words that have different meanings, but the same sound and spelling
Reap hand to a friend (see example above).
Reap bread with a sickle means cutting off the ears of bread, not squeezing it. The meaning of the words has completely changed. There is a sound coincidence of words here. So these are homonyms.
braid- type of hairstyle, braid- agricultural implements, braid - cape, sandbank - the words differ in meaning, but are the same in sound and spelling.
There are complete and partial homonyms. Complete homonyms are words of one part of speech; they have the same entire system of forms.
World- agreement, absence of war. - World- universe, globe.
Onion- garden plant. - Onion- hand weapons for throwing arrows.
Month-- 1/12th of the astronomical year. - Month- a celestial body (Moon) in a certain phase.
Partial homonyms are words with different meanings that do not have the same sound and spelling in all grammatical forms:
Factory(action on the verb “start”, has no plural forms) - factory- factories (enterprise).
The following also have signs of homonymy:
homoforms - matches only a separate form: I’m flying (from treat) - I’m flying (from fly); I drive (from carry) - I drive (from drive); I get along (from climb) - I get along (from get along); my (pronoun) - my (from wash).
Homoforms are common among verbs, where the alternation of sounds plays an important role;
homophones - these are different words that have the same sound, but different spellings: eye - voice (voice); genus - mouth; pond - twig; haystack - drain. Sometimes not only words, but also combinations coincide in pronunciation: wet - maybe, for days - with ducks;
homographs - pronounced differently, but written the same way: zamok - zamok, already - already, atlas - atlas.
Homonyms, homophones, homoforms are often used to create puns, mainly in poems: homonymous rhymes are expressive, funny, and attract attention:
A seamstress sews a stitch with a needle,
The skate sharpener took it to the point.
I, finishing the line,
I'll put a little point.
The bear carried it, walking towards the market,
Jar of honey for sale.
Suddenly the bear is attacked! -
The wasps decided to attack.
Teddy bear with an army of aspen
He fought with a torn aspen.
Could he not fly into rage?
If the wasps climbed into the mouth,
They stung anywhere,
They got it for this.
(Ya. Kozlovsky)
Homoforms add musicality, melodiousness, and vivid imagery to poetic speech.
“Will everything be ground into flour?”
People are comforted by this science.
Will it become torment, what was melancholy?
No, better with flour. (M. Tsvetaeva)
SYNONYMS
Synonyms- these are words that are close or identical in meaning, but which have different names for the same concept.
Lexical synonyms These are words related to the same part of speech, expressing the same concept, but at the same time differing in shades of meaning: worry, worry, anxiety the words are close in their general meaning (lack of peace), but each of them has a connotation: anxiety - lack of peace, care, trouble; excitement - lack of peace, special excitement; anxiety - lack of peace, a significant degree of anxiety associated with experiences.
Stylistic synonyms differ in stylistic coloring and scope of use: face, face, physiognomy, muzzle, muzzle, mug, snout; future, upcoming, upcoming, upcoming, next.
Syntactic synonyms parallel syntactic constructions that have different structures, but coincide in meaning:
start work - start work; near the house - near the house;
she doesn't feel well - she's not feeling well.
Synonyms are grouped into synonymous rows. Words future, coming upcoming, forthcoming, next are united in a synonymous series because they all mean what should happen, although each of them has its own shade of meaning.
Synonymous words have one word in the synonymous series - a stylistically neutral core (main) word, which is called dominant.
In a synonymous series overcome, defeat, crush, overcome, overpower, triumph, win, gain the upper hand, break the dominant word will be win.
The technique is often used in fiction injection (gradation) of synonyms to achieve the effect of greatest expressiveness:
How has it not come to him yet? head what is thisoptical illusion, hallucination, mirage . (Chuck).
Read the next sentence. Try to arrange synonyms according to the principle of gradation:
Soon everyone was laughing: the boy in the elevator was laughing, the maid was giggling, the waiters in the restaurant were smiling, the fat hotel cook grunted, the cooks were squealing, the doorman was grunting, the bellboys were howling, the hotel owner himself was grinning.
(L Kassil)
The rich synonymy of the Russian language allows you to express the most subtle shades of thoughts and feelings. Achieve extreme precision and expressiveness.
At the same time, the presence of synonymous words requires special care, sensitivity to the word, and knowledge of all the features of its use. The vast majority of language errors are associated with incorrect word choice.
The main way to eliminate such errors is to find the only word that is appropriate in a given context.
ANTONYMS
Antonyms- words with the opposite sign. Antonyms are used to denote contrasting concepts that can be correlated with each other in meaning: morning- evening, day - night, early - late, top- bottom, ruddy - pale, health - illness, small - big, happiness - grief.
Antonyms are used in artistic speech and journalism as an expressive means of creating contrast: He himself is fat, his artists are skinny (Mushroom); Long live the sun! Let the darkness disappear! (Pushk); I’m sad because you’re having fun... (Lerm.).
Many proverbs and sayings contain antonyms:
An old friend is better than two new ones;
The well-fed does not understand the hungry;
The thin world of the best good quarrel.
The titles of the works are expressive, based on a comparison of antonyms: “Fathers and Sons”, “War and Peace”, “Thick and Thin”.
VOCABULARY OF THE MODERN RUSSIAN LANGUAGE FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF ITS ORIGIN
Russian vocabulary in its modern form did not appear immediately. The process of vocabulary formation is long and complex. Questions of the origin of Russian vocabulary and the path of its development are closely related to the origin and history of the Russian people.
Historical lexicology names two main layers of words: native Russian vocabulary and borrowed vocabulary.
The original Russian vocabulary includes those words that were formed directly in the Russian language: common Slavic, East Slavic and Russian proper.
Common Slavic words inherited by the Old Russian language from the language of the Slavic tribes that occupied the territory of Eastern, Central Europe and the Balkans by the beginning of our era. It was used as a single means of communication until approximately the 7th century AD: mother, father, daughter, son, brother, reaper, shepherd, weave, reap, house, fur coat, window, milk, porridge, kvass, honey, plow, cow, birch, earth, mountain, sun, winter, morning, etc.
East Slavic, or Old Russian, words arose in the XI-XIV centuries. This includes words common to the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages, which once formed a unity - the East Slavic language: uncle, nephew, man, basket, spoon, tablecloth, samovar, ravine.
Actually Russian words appeared in the 14th century. after the division of the East Slavic language into Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian: grandmother, grandfather, woman, man, boy, child, swallow, dandelion, coo, grumble, result, experience.
Since ancient times, the Russian people have entered into cultural, trade, military, and political ties with other states, which could not but lead to linguistic borrowings.
Borrowed words make up about 10% of the vocabulary of the Russian language. Words from different languages penetrated into the Russian language:
A) Old Slavonicisms(generosity, harmony, universe, sacrifice, resurrection);
b) from Greek language (lamp, icon, notebook, cypress, mathematics, cedar);
c) from Latin language (school, classroom, republic, constitution, revolution);
d) from Turkic languages (pearls, money, bazaar, raisins, watermelon, treasury, shoe, robe, iron);
e) from Scandinavian languages: (Igor, Oleg, Rurik, herring, chest, pood, hook, anchor, mast);
e) from German:(guardhouse, corporal, camp, paramedic, tie, landscape, resort);
g) from Dutch(harbour, sailor, boat, rudder, roadstead, flag, fleet);
h) from French(bracelet, medallion, battalion, broth, marmalade, coat);
i) from English(boycott, rally, club, tunnel, trolleybus, station, football, basketball, hockey, athlete);
j) from Italian(pasta, vermicelli, aria, sonata, carnival);
k) from Spanish(guitar, serenade, caramel).
Borrowing is a completely natural process of language enrichment.
Many borrowed words have Russian synonyms: personal - personal, absurdity - absurdity; liquidation - termination, in detail - in detail.
VOCABULARY FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF AREAS OF USE
The main part of the vocabulary of the Russian language consists of commonly used words, i.e. the kind that everyone uses. Regardless of profession and place of residence.
But there are groups of words and expressions that are limited in their scope of use. These are dialect vocabulary, professional vocabulary and terminology, slang vocabulary.
Dialectisms characteristic of the speech of the population of a region or region.
Find dialectisms in A. Yashin’s poem:
Native words familiar from childhood are disappearing from everyday use:
In the fields of Poland there are black grouse,
Letyanina - game,
Mocking - rumor,
The counter is like a chest of drawers.
Not allowed in dictionaries
From rural vocabulary:
Sugrevushka,
Fypiks - bullfinches,
Vorkuns are outlawed.
Professional vocabulary used by groups of persons united by the nature of their activities.
Professionalism is characterized by greater differentiation in the designation of tools and means of production, in the names of specific objects and actions.
Professionalism arises mainly in two cases:
a) when the specialty does not have its own developed terminology (hunting, fishing, games);
b) as colloquial, informal substitutes for terms (gimbal device - cardan, transmission mechanism - transmission).
Term is a word or combination of words denoting a strictly defined scientific, technical, art or socio-political concept.
Each science and branch of production has its own system of terms (terminology): heat, speed, battery, part, button, pedal, vibration.
Vocabulary of limited use includes jargon - words of one or another social group of people: students (couple, count, crib), students (high, filonit, crap, amazing, cool, cool), drivers (steering wheel).
VOCABULARY OF THE MODERN RUSSIAN LANGUAGE FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF ITS ACTIVE AND PASSIVE RESERVE
The vocabulary reflects all processes of the historical development of society. Changes in vocabulary are directly related to human production activity, to the economic, social, and political development of society. With the advent of new objects and phenomena, new concepts arise, and with them, words for naming these concepts. With the death of certain phenomena, the words that name them also fall out of use. Therefore, the vocabulary of the language can be divided into two groups; active dictionary (everyday used words whose meaning is clear to all speakers of a given language) and passive dictionary (words that either have a pronounced connotation of obsolescence, or have just appeared and have not yet become widespread), obsolete words include historicisms (words that have completely fallen out of use due to the disappearance of concepts): boyar, clerk, archer, guardsman.
Another group consists archaisms , those. words replaced by synonyms, this - this, cheeks - cheeks, youth - boy, sail - sail, airplane - plane.
Neologisms - new words that appear in the language as a result of the emergence of new concepts, phenomena, qualities; florist, sponsor, series, manager.
Lexical norms - rules associated with the use of individual words and phrases in accordance with their semantic meaning.
Compliance with lexical norms requires the writer and speaker to be able to freely manage their active vocabulary. The poverty of active vocabulary usually coincides with a person’s low level of speech culture, that is, with a large number of mistakes made by him in oral and written speech. This includes, first of all, ignorance of the boundaries, use of the word and the possibility of its combination with other words; “gifted poems” (instead of talented ones); a collision of words from different states of language in time: “Chichikov was reduced from work", "Svyatoslav Kyiv was gentleman" etc.
Violations of lexical norms include the unreasonable use of dialectisms, vulgar and slang words, argotisms, and the use of a large number of foreign words and abbreviations.
PHRASEOLOGY
In Russian, words are combined with each other to form phrases. Some of them are free (iron shovel, iron nail), others not free (iron will, iron discipline).
Indivisible, integral in meaning phrases that are reproduced in speech as ready-made speech units are called phraseological units(phraseologisms).
Phraseologisms have varying degrees of semantic indecomposability and changeability of their constituent parts.
All phraseological units can be divided into four groups:
1) phraseological adjunctions, those. stable combinations that have absolute indivisibility and have lost the original meanings of their constituent words (not at ease, got into trouble, ate the dog, got into trouble, wasted, carelessly, of course);
2) phraseological unities, those. stable combinations in which words are used figuratively (play a role, show off, green street like clockwork, make a mess);
3) phraseological combinations- phrases that include words with extremely limited lexical compatibility, i.e. one of the words can be combined with any one or few words. For example, in combinations burn with shame And melancholy takes over words burn out And beret are the main element in other phraseological combinations:
burn out- from shame, from disgrace, from love, from impatience, from envy; beret- melancholy, annoyance, anger, fear, hunting, laughter. The use of other components is not possible ( burn with joy, takes a smile);
4) phraseological expressions - a special type of phraseological units that have the form of sentences with a constant lexical composition: proverbs, sayings, catchwords. The forest is being cut down - the chips are flying (Episode); And the smoke of the fatherland is sweet and pleasant to us (Gr.); There was love without joy, separation will be without sadness (Lerm.)
The use of phraseological units in speech is subject to historically established rules that are mandatory for everyone. In cases where norms are violated, an error occurs.
The following errors are most often found in document texts:
Distortion of the composition of a phraseological unit, lexical substitution (replacement of words included in circulation with synonyms): The design bureau's proposals turned out to be lower than any(follows: any) criticism;
Crossing phraseological units that are close in meaning (play a role and matter);
Changing the accepted grammatical form of words included in circulation: crooked in the shower(follows: cheated), play spillikins (play spillikins).
Lexicology is a branch of the science of language that studies the word as the basic unit of language and its vocabulary.
According to their use and origin, words are divided into commonly used and non-commonly used: professionalisms, dialectisms, jargon, emotionally charged words, outdated words, neologisms, as well as native Russian words and borrowings.
Common words- these are the words from which our everyday speech is built; everyone uses these words, regardless of place of residence and profession. These are the names of objects, phenomena, qualities, actions.
Example:
water, earth, sky, bird, green, blue, long, walk, think, talk, etc.
There are words in the Russian language that not everyone knows and uses in their speech. These are not common words.
Example:
Yaruga(ravine) is used in the speech of residents of some places, fireclay(refractory clay) - in the speech of metallurgists.
Professionalisms- these are words associated with the characteristics of the work of people in a particular specialty or profession. Such words help more accurately name objects and concepts, more accurately describe people and their activities.
The most commonly used professional words are given in explanatory dictionaries. They put a mark on them specialist.(what does “special” mean); other marks indicate which specialties the words are associated with, for example: tech.- technical, Morsk.- sea.
Example:
thick-dog (the name for the quality of a dog - in the speech of dog breeders),
basement (an article occupying the bottom of a newspaper page - in the speech of printers),
spare wheel (spare wheel - in the speech of car mechanics and drivers),
paddock (spare typed texts - in the speech of newspaper editors),
paws and Christmas trees (types of quotation marks - in the speech of proofreaders and printers).
Dialectisms- these are words used only by residents of a particular area.
The most common dialecticisms are given in explanatory dictionaries with the mark region(that is, “regional”).
Example:
cock (rooster),
beam (ravine),
talk (talk)
buchilo (deep hole with spring water)…
Jargonisms- these are words limited in their use by a certain social or age environment.
Many jargons are very expressive, which contributes to their rapid transition into common speech.
Example:
bucks (US dollars), box (TV), handset (telephone), fade (leave)…
Emotionally charged words not only name objects, but also express an attitude towards them.
Emotional coloring can be negative and positive.
The emotional connotation of a word is reflected in explanatory dictionaries with special marks: disapproved(disapproving) high(solemn, high), rude(rude) bran.(expletive), neglected(dismissive) diminutive-affectionate(diminutive), etc.
Negative words:
nag (disparaging) - not just a horse, but a bad horse;
stink (rude) - smell bad;
quitter (disapproved) - lazy, slacker.
Positively colored words:
hoist (high) - hoist the banner of victory;
sunshine (diminutive-affectionate) - an affectionate address to a dear person.
Outdated words- these are words that have fallen out of active everyday use. These words include:
1. Historicisms- words that have left the active vocabulary due to the disappearance of the objects and phenomena they call;
2.Archaisms- words replaced by words that are more accurate and convenient from the speaker’s point of view.
In explanatory dictionaries such words are placed with the mark outdated(obsolete).
Historicisms: caftan, spindle, cocked hat.
Archaisms: sail (sail), brow (forehead), voice (voice).
Neologisms- these are new words that arise in the language following the development of science, technology, art, social life, the emergence of new household items and new ideas about the world.
Example:
sponsor, series, player, quarks (elementary particles), chromodynamics (section of physics)…
Original Russian words- these are words that were formed directly in the Russian language during different periods of its development.
Example:
brother, sister, mother, father, milk, porridge, pie, honey, kvass, rocker, tablecloth, poker, boat, ravine, roof, lace, bag, architect...
Borrowed words- these are words that entered the Russian language from other languages.
Example:
algebra, optics, globe, apoplexy, varnish, compass, cruiser, port, corps, army, deserter, cavalry, office, deed, rent, tariff...
Phraseology is a branch of the science of language in which stable phrases that are integral in their meaning are studied.
Phraseologisms- these are stable combinations of words, equal in meaning to either one word or an entire sentence.
Example:
you can't spill water (about strong friendship),
blow on the water after getting burned on milk (to be too careful, remembering past mistakes),
darker than a cloud (to be very angry),
seventh water on jelly (distant relatives).
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Preparation for Russian language exams:
Great classics wrote about the richness of the Russian language, praising it and expressing their admiration. It is known to be one of the most difficult languages in the world to learn. There are many branches of linguistics, each of which deals with certain issues and has its own subject of research. We invite you to get acquainted briefly with two interesting disciplines - vocabulary and phraseology - which study the most significant layers of language.
Definitions
Vocabulary is the area of linguistics that deals with the study of the entire variety of words that exist in a language. Researchers consider not only commonly used words, which make up the bulk of the lexical wealth, but also dialects, professionalisms, and jargons. This science is constantly evolving, since every year new objects and phenomena appear and, accordingly, their names - words, while others, on the contrary, become outdated and leave the active vocabulary into the realm of outdated or archaic. Thus, the phrase: “I took a selfie on an iPhone and posted it on Instagram” will simply not be understood by more than half of the older generation (65+).
Let's look at what phraseology is. This is a special linguistic discipline, the study of which includes fixed words and expressions - phraseological units used in speech in an unchanged, always the same form. Their use makes speech richer and more figurative. The figure shows in the form of a diagram the main riches of the language - vocabulary and Russian phraseology.
Origin and features of the discipline
Most of the names of sciences have Greek roots, and phraseology is no exception. It comes from two Hellenic roots:
- Logos - knowledge.
- Phrasis is a phrase used in speech.
Answering the question of what phraseology is, it can be noted that this is a section of knowledge about language that works with constant speech patterns. Such stable combinations of words (also called idioms) make speech richer, more picturesque, brighter, and help express feelings and emotions.
“To be in a difficult position, between two dangers” and “To be between Scylla and Charybdis.” In the second case, the use of a constant phrase adds poignancy to the meaning of the statement; the speaker (or writer) is now clearly experiencing serious difficulties and does not know what to do.
Phraseology of the Russian language is one of the youngest sciences of the linguistic cycle, although the subjects of its study are often quite archaic. Thus, the phraseology “to beat the thumbs” is little understood by modern people, since the word “bucks” (wooden blanks for spoons and cups) has fallen out of active use. But nevertheless, wanting to say that someone is idle, we say: “Vasya is kicking ass” - the meaning of the phrase is clear to others.
Distinctive features of phraseological units
The object of scientific study has two constant characteristics:
- Stability of form (for example, “Trishkin’s caftan” is a phraseological unit that makes sense precisely in this form. You cannot say “Trishkin’s frock coat” or “Trishkin’s jacket”).
- Expressiveness, emotional coloring (such units of language are heard in speech when there is a need to express the speaker’s attitude to the object he is describing).
The presence of these two features helps to distinguish phraseological combinations from ordinary phrases, for example: a red car or an affectionate cat.
Considering what phraseology is, it should be noted that this science, like vocabulary, deals with antonyms and synonyms. Here are some examples:
- Phraseologisms-synonyms: neither fish nor meat and neither peahen nor crow, between Scylla and Charybdis and between two fires.
- Antonyms: and it’s not necessary for nothing - a tidbit, carelessly - to put your soul into it, a yellow-throated chick is a shot sparrow.
There are a large number of phraseological phrases, some of them came to the Russian language from other languages, others are original. There are also many sources: these are expressions that came from the professional environment (“hatchet work”, “drop anchor”), and certain realities of the development of the state (for example, the expression “go into orbit” appeared in the language after success in space exploration), and works writers. A lot of phraseological units have become commonly used thanks to Krylov’s fables: “And Vaska listens and eats”; "monkey and glasses"; "elephant in a china shop").
Having considered what phraseology is, we suggest that you familiarize yourself with a selection of interesting facts that will help you learn this science from a new perspective:
- The combination of words “get into trouble” is familiar to many. But its history is unusual: in the old days, a piece of equipment for combing wool was called a prosak. If a worker’s hand accidentally got into trouble, the consequences could be very serious, including the loss of a limb. Gradually, the expression slightly changed its meaning and became synonymous with the expression “getting into an awkward situation.”
- Slurping without salt is another expression that helps to understand that living in Russia of past eras was not easy: salt was then worth its weight in gold, ordinary people could not salt their food, hence the combination.
- Find out all the ins and outs - the phraseology originates from torture - driving a nail under the nails. After such pain, everyone was ready to lay out the truth.
- Filka's letter is, according to modern ideas, an illiterately drawn up document. And the idiom appeared during the time of Ivan the Terrible, who expressed himself in such a disparaging manner regarding the numerous letters of the Moscow Metropolitan Philip, dissatisfied with the tyrant’s policies.
These are just some of the phraseological units of the Russian language; in fact, the list can be continued endlessly, because each such expression is interesting and useful in its own way.
Phraseology is the most important linguistic discipline that can and should be studied.
Vocabulary. Lexical meaning of the word. Synonyms. Antonyms. Homonyms. Paronyms
Lexicology studies the vocabulary of the language.
Word- this is the basic unit of language, which is a sound or a complex of sounds that has meaning and serves to name objects, phenomena, actions, characteristics, quantities, states, etc.
The totality of all words of the Russian language forms it vocabulary .
Lexical meaning of the word – this is the correlation of a word with certain phenomena of reality.
Words that have the same lexical meaning are called unambiguous(the smell of flowers, a pleasant smell), and words that have two or more lexical meanings are called polysemantic(dress sleeve, river sleeve, fire hose).
Direct meaning of the word – this is its main lexical meaning.
figurative meaning – this is its secondary meaning, which arose on the basis of the direct one (ribbon in the hair, conveyor belt, ribbon of the road).
It is necessary to distinguish from ambiguous words homonyms- words of the same part of speech, identical in sound and spelling, but different in lexical meaning (lock with a key, water flows with a key, treble clef).
There are different types of homonyms:
- lexical homonyms (mow the grass with a scythe - a girl's scythe);
- homoforms (washing my hands is my jacket);
- homophones (forests – fox);
- homographs (flour – flour).
Synonyms- these are words of the same part of speech, close or identical in meaning, but different in sound and spelling (cultural - civilized - developed).
Several words of synonyms form a synonymous row in which the words differ in shades of lexical meaning (look, look - neutral, look - bookish, look - colloquial).
Antonyms- these are words of the same part of speech, different in sound, having opposite lexical meanings (upper - lower, truth - lie). Antonyms are the basis of antithesis (opposition).
Paronyms- these are words with the same root, usually from the same part of speech, similar in sound, but different in meaning (deed - misdemeanor, rainy - rainy, addressee - addressee, general - general).
Groups of words by origin and use
By origin, all words in the Russian language are divided into borrowed and native Russian.
Originally Russian- these are words that originated in the Russian language (ladya, life).
Borrowed words - these are words that came into the Russian language from other languages (shoe, kitchen, lecture).
Words that have fallen out of active use are called outdated(police officer, person).
Among the obsolete words are:
- historicisms– words denoting the names of objects and phenomena that have gone out of use (chain mail, educational program);
- archaisms- words that have fallen out of use because they have been replaced by new ones (forehead - forehead).
New words that appear in a language are called neologisms(cybernetics, algorithm). Neologisms can be the author’s (frivolous little head (V. Mayakovsky)).
According to the sphere of use, words in the Russian language are divided into commonly used and limited in use.
Commonly used - these are words that are used by all people, regardless of profession and place of residence (daughter, good).
Restricted areas of use include:
- dialectisms- words used by residents of a particular area (bulba - potatoes, beetroot - beets).
- professionalism - words used by people of one profession or another (lashings - fastening boats on ships to protect them from being dislodged);
- jargon- expressively colored words that denote well-known concepts in a narrow, socially limited circle of people (truncate - understand (youth jargon)).
Exercise No. 1
Indicate the lexical meaning of the words.
Look around, personification, dress up, centurion, standard, fortune, swagger, penates, extraordinary, minnesinger, quadrille.
Exercise No. 2
Write down single and ambiguous words in 2 columns.
Yogi, quotes, conservative, leader, monologue, superficial, direction, change, natural, concoct, melt, tram, elegant, paganism, zenith.
Exercise No. 3
Write down the words used figuratively.
Snake smile, hackneyed phrases, tricky question, burn with a hot iron, ride in elections, good child, speak arrogantly, cradle of freedom, blockade ring, ribbon of the road, climb a mountain, unjustified extravagance, exercise, painkillers.
Exercise No. 4
Select and write down synonyms for these words.
Beautiful, small, difficult, humane, fast, long, dirty, tasty, run, understand, be surprised.
Exercise No. 5
Choose antonyms for these words and group antonymic pairs by parts of speech.
Beginning, happy, right, fade, lose, wide, strong, far, little, poor.
Exercise No. 6
Insert appropriate antonyms.
1) It wouldn’t... yes... it would help. 2) Prepare the sleigh... and the cart.... 3) ... feeds a person, but ... spoils him. 4) Learning is ..., and ignorance is .... 5) ...things are better... idleness. 6) ... the world is better ... quarrels. (Proverbs)
Exercise No. 7
Make up sentences with these phrases.
Aggressive trot, change to a trot; peace in the family, the whole world; cold key, door key; cross your eyes, mow the grass; spectacular outfit, police outfit; peacock feather, fountain pen nib.
Exercise No. 8
Determine the meaning of each of the paronym words and make sentences with them.
Ignorant - ignorant, call - response, diplomat - graduate, practitioner - trainee, typos - prints, doorman - Swiss, idle - festive, kind - solid, dress - put on, found - justify.
Exercise No. 9
Make up phrases with adjectives - paronyms:
Person, talent (poetic - poetic); neighbor, interest (hidden - secretive); advice, suit (practical - practical); motive, character (romantic - romantic).
Exercise No. 10
Insert one of the synonym words into each sentence.
- This sculpture is made from a (whole, solid) piece of marble.
- He was distinguished by a (special, special) gift of foresight.
- The name of the comedy hero D.I. Fonvizin symbolizes the image (ignorant, ignorant).
- The article in the newspaper evoked a lively (response, outcry) from readers.
- He always had a majestic and (royal, regal) appearance.
Exercise No. 11
Match each adjective with a noun. In what examples can the same noun be used?
Careful - thrifty, businesslike - businesslike, classy - classy, offensive - touchy, skillful - artificial, spectacular - effective, amazing - surprised.
Exercise No. 12
In which sentence should information be used instead of the word informatization?
The introduction of information technology is necessary in all spheres of life.
Even in rural schools, computer information classes have been created.
Reading the textbook is supplemented by information obtained from the Internet.
The country's large cities should become strongholds for accelerated informatization.
Phraseology
Phraseology - a branch of the science of language that studies stable combinations of words.
Phraseologisms- these are stable combinations of words, close in lexical meaning to one word (to kick back - to mess around).
From the point of view of origin, phraseological units are divided into primordially Russian (all over Ivanovo, with Gulkin’s nose, out of the frying pan and into the fire), Old Slavonic (not of this world, beating up babies, an eye for an eye) and borrowed from other languages (blue stocking - from English . lang., somersault - from Italian lang., honeymoon - from French lang.).
From the point of view of stylistic coloring, phraseological units are divided into the following groups:
1) neutral, or inter-style: keep your word, draw a line, put an end to it, swan song;
2) stylistically colored, among which stand out:
a) conversational (brew the porridge like the back of your hand, with all your might, two boots in a pair, fill your pocket);
b) colloquial (to twist your brains, it's in the bag, you're a fool);
c) bookish (finest hour, crown of thorns, apple of discord).
Colloquial and colloquial phraseological units are classified as reduced; book phraseological units - to the category of high, solemn.
Exercise No. 13
Indicate the lexical meaning of phraseological units.
Augean stables –
Build on sand -
Forbidden fruit -
Lower your wings -
The cat cried -
Throw down -
Not at ease -
Hold it in your fist -
Twist your tail -
Change the scenery -
Exercise No. 14
Select phraseological units that have meanings:
- Few.
- Mump.
- To become famous, to become famous.
- Don't think about your safety.
- To hesitate, to do something very slowly.
- Stand out clearly, brightly.
- At worst.
- Feel confident.
- Objectively, unbiased.
- Many.
Words for reference: regardless of the faces, do not spare the belly, pull the ropes, the cat cried, pass like a red thread, at worst, the Kazan orphan, go down in history like a fish in water, no end.
| Type of error | Example | |
| 1. | The word is used in a meaning that is unusual for it | Humanism and kindness contraindicated cruelty and indifference. |
| 2. | Violation of lexical compatibility of words | Tears flowed silently from her eyes. |
| 3. | Anachronism (ahistorical use of a word) | In secular society they loved to organize receptions and other get-togethers. |
| 4. | Tautology (repetition of words with the same root) | This characterizes the characteristic features of our time. |
| 5. | Mixing paronyms | The student is also an accomplice in the educational process. |
| 6. | Speech redundancy (pleonasm) | His passion for folklore led him to the ensemble. |
| 7. | Speech failure | Bazarov is a bright representative. He's a nihilist. |
The word as the basic unit of language: the main significant unit of language is the word. The totality of all the words of a language constitutes its vocabulary. Words in the language serve to designate specific objects, attributes of objects, actions, attributes of actions, quantities. What a separate, independent word denotes is its lexical meaning, for example, there is the object “bridge” and there is the word bridge denoting this object. The lexical meaning of the word bridge is as follows: “a structure for crossing, crossing a river.”
Lexical and grammatical, direct and figurative meaning of words; single and polysemous words.
- - preposition, conjunction, particles do not have subject-lexical meaning and are not members of the proposal, have grammatical meaning.
- - words denoting objects, signs, actions, quantities appear in direct meaning. Often existing words are used to name other objects, signs, actions, for example: the color of gold is transferred to the color of hair - golden hair, that is, similar in color to gold.
- - when transferring the name of one object (attribute, action) as a name for another object. The word acquires a new lexical meaning, cat. called portable. The figurative meaning of a word can be attached to an object and become a direct meaning, for example: a person’s nose (direct) - the bow of a boat (figurative) - the bow of a boat (direct). The transfer of names occurs on the basis of the similarity of objects in something.
- - words, cat. denote only one object, sign, action, i.e. having only one lexical meaning is called unambiguous(violet is one of the colors of the spectrum).
- - a word that has several lexical meanings is called ambiguous(comb - comb, mountain top, wave top).
The figurative meaning of words as the basis of tropes: metaphors, epithets, comparisons.
Synonyms are words of one part of speech, cat. mean the same thing, but differ from each other in shades of lexical meaning and use in speech (blizzard, blizzard, blizzard, blizzard, blizzard - falling snow in windy weather).
Antonyms are words of the same part of speech with opposite lexical meanings (fresh bread - stale, fresh magazine - old, fresh collar - dirty).
Homonyms - words of the same part of speech, identical in sound and spelling, but different in lexical meaning (kok, scythe, ambassador) not to be confused with words that have the same spelling and pronunciation (lock-castle, organ-organ; pond-rod , labor-tinder).
Paronyms are words of the same part of speech, close in meaning, but different from each other in the composition of phonemes (letters) in the word (betray-sell, base-basis).
Historical changes in the vocabulary of a language: the word as part of the language is a means of communication between people. With the help of language, people communicate with each other, convey their thoughts, feelings, desires. As a means of communication, language is connected with the life of society, with the people. Along with the development of society, language develops and changes, that is, its small part is the word. The vocabulary of the language changes and is enriched, morphological norms change, new syntactic structures appear, new norms for the pronunciation of words are fixed, and some words disappear from the vocabulary of the language. for example, archaisms and historicisms have gone out of circulation in the modern Russian language. They can be found in fiction as a means of recreating historical pictures of past eras, the speech of people of those ancient eras, as well as tools and household items that no longer even exist in our time. Thus, with the development of humanity, a historical change occurs in the vocabulary of the language.
Archaisms - from the Greek ANCIENT - are outdated synonyms of modern words (forehead, neck, neck). Thus, archaisms name concepts that exist now, but are designated by other modern words. Archaisms are used first in art. literature for creating convincing pictures of a historical era, for authenticity in conveying the characteristics of characters’ speech, as well as as a means of irony, ridicule, and jokes.
Historicisms are outdated words denoting former, now non-existent concepts: names related to the socio-economic relations of the past, household items, tools (boyar, camisole, plow, arshin). In modern Russian there are no synonyms for historicisms. They are used in various styles, most often in the scientific one, to designate concepts of a certain era (the sable hat of a boyar, the fur caps of clerks, the dark caftans of people).
The main sources of vocabulary replenishment: all changes are directly reflected in the vocabulary of the language. occur in social life, technology, science, production. At the same time, some words are gradually falling out of use (obsolete words - archaisms and historicisms), while others, on the contrary, appear in the language (neologisms, borrowed words). Also, new words are formed from derivatives of native Russian words that have existed for many centuries.
Neologisms - from the Greek NEW - are new words that arise in the language and serve to designate those new concepts, cat. appeared in connection with the development of social relations, science, culture, technology (lunar rover, video phone). As the phenomena or objects they denote spread, new words may firmly enter into general use and lose their connotation of novelty (TV, tape recorder). Neologisms can be intentionally created by authors for various stylistic purposes for greater expressiveness.
Origin of words:
original Russian words: by origin, the vocabulary of the Russian language contains original Russian words, that is, which originated in the Russian language. Original Russian words make up the bulk of the vocabulary of the Russian language, for example (rye, cow, snow, wind, city, young, good). Many of them exist in Russian. language for centuries, from many a huge number of derivative words have been formed (forest - forest, forester, forester, wooded, coppice);
Borrowed words: included in the vocabulary of the Russian language and taken from other languages: Slavic and foreign languages. The appearance of foreign words in the Russian language is the result of the diverse connections of the Russian people with various peoples of the West and East. These words enter the language, first of all, along with the penetration of new objects and concepts: (globe, circus from Latin; sandwich, workbench from German; avant-garde, director from French; rally, match from English) Words can be borrowed to indicate that in In our language, it is denoted not by one word, but by a phrase, a descriptive phrase, for example (cross - running over rough terrain; sniper - marksman).
Old Church Slavonicisms are words that entered the Russian language from the Old Church Slavonic language, the language of the most ancient (10th-11th century) monuments of Slavic writing. It is ancient Bulgarian in origin and became widespread in Ancient Rus' because it was largely understandable to Russian people and its assimilation did not present any great difficulties. From Old Church Slavonic they entered into Russian: sweet, enemy, captivity, ignoramus, I will return; some prefixes and suffixes: pre, through, from, bottom, ushch, yushch, ashch, zn, ynya, tv, chiy, tai; the roots are cool and healthy; Some Old Church Slavonicisms do not have external distinctive phonetic or word-formation features (truth, slander, vice, creator).
Common and uncommon words:
Words known to all people and used by everyone are called commonly used.Words that are not known to all speakers of Russian are called not commonly used(these include dialect and professional words).
Dialectisms are dialect words used in artistic works to convey the peculiarities of speech of residents of a certain area. There are three main groups of dialects in the Russian language: North Russian, South Russian, Central Russian.
Professionalisms are professional words used in artistic works to more accurately describe people and their activities. Professional words used in the speech of people united by some profession or specialty. Certain professional words, due to the increased level of culture and education of people, are becoming commonly used (radio, screen, aspirin, antibiotic).
Words - terms - are a special group among professional words that call concepts of different sciences, for example: suffix, interjection - in the science of language; hypotenuse, leg - in mathematics; rift, magma - in geography.
PHRASEOLOGY is a branch of the science of language that studies stable combinations of words.
Phraseological units of the Russian language:
Idioms are phraseological expressions, a figure of speech, the meaning of which is not determined by the individual meanings of the words included in it (to sharpen lyas).
Phraseological combinations are a stable combination of words used to name individual objects, features, and actions. The phraseological unit as a whole has lexical meaning, for example (to kick the bucket - to mess around). Phraseological combinations are one member of a sentence, have synonyms and antonyms - other phraseological units (at the end of the world - where the raven did not carry bones or lift them to heaven - trample them into the mud).
Proverbs, sayings and popular expressions are some parts of phraseology and characterize all aspects of human life, his attitude to work (golden hands, legs feed the wolf), attitude towards other people (bosom friend, disservice), personal advantages and disadvantages (does not lose heads, poor little head). They are used in everyday speech, in works of art, and in journalism. They give expressiveness to the statement and serve as a means of creating imagery.
Sources of phraseological units are proverbs, sayings, fairy tales, works of literature.
Lexical means of expressive speech: common and dialect words, professional words, proper names and denominations, obsolete words, neologisms - all this makes up the lexical wealth of the Russian language.
Lexical dictionaries of the Russian language - from words and phraseological units, linguists compile special books called dictionaries. Some dictionaries explain objects and phenomena of the surrounding world (encyclopedic), while others explain the lexical meanings of words and indicate the norms for their spelling and pronunciation (linguistic). A linguistic dictionary is a special book, a collection of dictionary entries that describe the basic properties of a word. Dictionary entries in dictionaries are arranged in alphabetical order. A dictionary entry in a linguistic dictionary consists of the following parts: headword, grammatical forms, interpretation of the lexical meaning of the word, examples of the use of the word in a sentence, phrase. There are linguistic dictionaries of general groups: “Dictionary of the modern Russian literary language”, “Dictionary of Russian folk dialects” and others. And there are dictionaries of individual lexical groups: “Dictionary of Synonyms”, “Dictionary of Homonyms”, “Dictionary of Antonyms”, “Winged Words”, “Phraseological Dictionary”, “Dictionary of Russian Names”, “Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language”.
- 1. “Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language” by V. Dahl contains over 200 thousand words, it has been republished several times, it contains over 30 thousand Russian proverbs and sayings, but explanations of the meanings of many words and political terms are now not acceptable.
- 2. In 1935-40, the 4-volume “Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language” was published under the editorship of Professor D.N. Ushakov. But we must take into account that the explanations of the meanings of a number of words are already outdated and the spelling of some words does not correspond to the currently established standards.
- 3. The 4-volume “Dictionary of the Russian Language” 1957-61 prepared by the Institute of Russian Language of the USSR Academy of Sciences presents the commonly used vocabulary and phraseology of the modern Russian language, as well as part of the widely used vocabulary of the Russian literary language from Pushkin to the present day (84g), knowledge that necessary when reading books by classical writers, journalistic and scientific works of the 19th century. The meaning of the word in this dictionary is revealed through a brief interpretation and is accompanied by a variety of examples. There are also grammatical instructions, stylistic notes are given (regional, colloquial, colloquial, bookish, obsolete), and stress is noted. For a foreign word, it is indicated from which language it came into the Russian language. If a word is included in phraseological units, then they are cited and explained. Since 1981, a 2-volume revised and expanded edition has been published.
- 4. “Dictionary of the modern Russian literary language” in 17 volumes (1948-65) - the most complete explanatory dictionary published in the Soviet era. It includes more than 120 thousand words. The vocabulary of the literary language of the 19th and 20th centuries is widely represented here. The text material is rich and varied. An important feature is the presence of brief references indicating the time the word was recorded in previous dictionaries.
- 5. “A Brief Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language,” edited by Barkhudarov, was first published in 1961 and then reprinted. It explains the origin of more than 7 thousand of the most common words in our language.
- 6. “Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language” edited by Molotkov (first edition 1967) can serve as a reference book on Russian phraseology in which there are more than 4 thousand phraseological units and their interpretation, options are given. The use of phraseological units is illustrated with large text material. In 1979, Zhukov’s “School Phraseological Dictionary” was released for students.
- 7. “Dictionary of synonyms of the Russian language” by Evgenieva, 1970. The 2-volume dictionary contains more than 4 thousand dictionary entries that provide an explanation of the meaning and features of the use of each of the synonyms. In 1975, the one-volume “Dictionary of Synonyms” was published as a reference manual.
- 8. In the “School Dictionary of Antonyms of the Russian Language” by M.R. Lvov. (1980) presents the most common antonyms of the modern Russian literary language.
MORPHEMICS AND WORD FORMATION is a branch of the science of language that studies the structure of words (what parts they consist of) and methods of their formation.
Morpheme as a unit of language, types of morphemes: a word consists of a stem and an ending. The basis includes a prefix, a root, a suffix. Prefix, root, suffix and ending are parts of a word, i.e. morphemes.
In changeable independent words, the BASE and ENDING are distinguished, and in the unchangeable words, only the BASE (about, tomorrow, in winter, moving, muffler).
BASE is a part of a modified word without an ending (sea-sea-sea). The basis of a word is its lexical meaning.
ENDING is a variable part of a word; the cat forms the form of the word and serves to connect words in phrases and sentences. To highlight the ending, you need to change the word (grass-grass). Unchanged words have no ending. When a word is changed or any of its forms (number, gender, case, person) are formed, the endings change.
The ending expresses different grammatical meanings:
- - for nouns, numerals and personal pronouns - case and number;
- - for adjectives, participles and some pronouns - case, number, gender;
- - verbs in the present and future tenses have person and number, and in the past tense they have gender and number;
The ending of m/b is zero, that is, not expressed by sounds. It is revealed by comparing the forms of the word (horse-horse-horse). In the nominative case, the zero ending means that the nouns are used in the form of the nominative case, singular, man of gender, 2nd declension.
Prefix- this is a significant part of the word, the cat is located in front of the root and serves to form words. The prefix forms words with a new meaning. The word m/b contains not one, but two or more prefixes (hopeless). The vast majority of prefixes are original Russian (o, from, under, above, pere). Foreign languages (a, anti, archi, inter, counter, ultra, de, dez, dis, re, ex, im). Among the prefixes there are synonymous and antonymous. Prefixes can be multi-valued: sail - means approaching; sew - joining; sit down - incomplete action; seaside - finding something nearby; In many words, the prefixes have merged with the root, and as independent parts of the word are no longer distinguished (admire, admire, meet, get, start, overcome, answer, visit, vertebra, adore, utter).
Root words are the main significant part of a word, which contains the general meaning of all words with the same root. Words with the same root are called cognates. The word m/b has 1 or 2 roots.
Suffix- this is a significant part of the catch, which is located after the root and usually serves to form words. For example: pilot, lamplighter, academician, Georgian, machinist, Caucasian, writer - names of persons of the same family are formed by profession, occupation, nationality and place of residence; pilot, saleswoman, craftswoman, Ossetian, writer - form feminine names with the same meaning; Suffixes can serve to form word forms: znamya-im pad, znamya-rod case; cheerful - more cheerful - comparative degree; to honor without perfecting the appearance, to honor without perfecting the appearance;
Suffixes of nouns - awn, nie, ene, ak, ok, ach, ec, lets, tel, chik, schik, ist, nits, its;
Participle suffixes - ash, yash, ush, yush, im, eat, om, t, nn, enn, sh, vsh;
Suffixes of gerunds - teach, yushchi, in, lice;
Verb suffixes - e, i, well, yva, iva, ova, eva, va;
Suffixes of pronouns and adverbs are either, either, or;
Alternation of vowels and consonants in morphemes:
UNStressed VOWELS AT THE ROOT OF A WORD:
- 1. in order not to make a mistake in writing the root word, you need to change the word or choose a word with the same root, in which the word being checked would be stressed (r e ka - r e ki, n O Vinka - n O vyy). It is impossible to check without stress if there is an alternation of sentences that does not depend on stress (ex. O power - control A sew, connect O fall - podk A sing, to O lot - off A bark, l O howl - howl A pour).
- 2. at the root -lag-, -lozh- bezud A is written before G, bezud Zh is written before F (location A go, floor O live).
- 3. at the root -rast-, -ros- bezud A is written before ST, SH except for r O drain, negative A sl; negative A style
- 4. in roots with alternating -e- and -i- ber-bir, mer-mir, der-dir, ter-tir, per-pir, stel-stil they write And, if after the root there is a suffix -a- (prot And army, prot e roar).
- 5. in the root -kas-, -kos- in the unadjusted position they write A, if after the root there is a suffix -a-, they write O, if this suffix is not present (example: A get up, get up O dream).
- 6. at the root -gor-, -gar- in a hopeless position they write O (sg O howl, og A rock).
- 7. unverifiable clauses in the root of the word should be remembered and checked in the dictionary (t O por).
- 8. If the original word began with I, then Y is written in the same root word with the prefix acc. after the prefix -over- they write I (times s play-off game, over And interesting - after over).
ROOT CONSONANT WORDS:
- 1. in order not to make a mistake in writing the sogl at the root of the word, you need to change the word or choose a word with the same root, in which after the checked sogl there is a gl or V, L, M, N, R (le G ki-lyo G ok, zu b-zu b noy-zu b s, about With ba-pro With it).
- 2. In order not to make a mistake in writing unpronounceable sogl when congruent in the root of a word, you need to choose a test word in which this sogl is pronounced clearly. If in a combination of sogl when the word is changed, sogl is not pronounced, then it is not written (chest T ny - ches T oh, miracle sn oh - miracle With en).
- 3. unverifiable agreements in a word need to be memorized and checked in a dictionary (in To hall).
VOWELS AND CONSONANTS IN PRESETS:
- 1. in a prefix (except for pre- and pre-) in an unstressed position the following sentence is written, the cat is heard in the same prefix under stress. To do this, you need to choose another word where this prefix is stressed ( from grow - from shine, on tear - on away).
- 2. if the prefix denotes accession, approach, proximity or incomplete action, then it is written I - this is the prefix -at. If the prefix is close in meaning to the word VERY or PERE, then it is written E, this is the prefix -pre (pr And glue - joining, etc. e bad - very, very e to rob - re).
There are many words in which -pre and -pri have become part of the root; their meaning outside the word is not determined (adorable, nature).
- 3. in prefixes (except for those ending in Z, S) the following sogl is written, cat is heard in the same prefix before hl or before R, L, M, N. To do this, you need to choose another word with this prefix standing before hl or before R , L, M, N (o b rub - oh b grow, oh b search).
- 4. in the prefix on -з, -с before the voiced sogl they write Z, and before the voiceless sogl they write S (be h delicious, blah With oven).
VOWELS AFTER SISSINGS AND -Ts:
- 1. if at the root after a hissing sound is heard under the stress O, then you need to write E (exceptions: gooseberry, rustle, seam, hood, ramrod, slum, prim, saddler, blinders); (black, burn hand - noun, burn hand - verb).
- 2. after C under the stress in the root they write O. Bezud ch after C must be checked with stress (c O kol, ts e face-ts e ly).
- 3. after sibilants and C under stress in the suffixes of nouns, adjectives and adverbs, in the endings of nouns and adverbs it is written O, without emphasis E (shapch O nka, bowls e chka; kumach O vyy, beige e vyy; reed O m, brocade O th, leather e th; fresh O, viscous e).
- 4. after hissing under stress at the endings of verbs, O is heard, and E is written (sech e t, coast e T).
- 5. in the suffixes of passive participles, E is written under stress, E without stress (if they are formed from verbs ending in -it-) (resh e nny - decide it, coloring e new - color it).
- 6. after the hissing Zh, Ch, Sh, Shch, Y, Yu, Z are not written, but I, U, A are written (with the exception of a brochure, jury, parachutist).
VOWELS -И, -И AFTER -Ц IN DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE WORD:
- 1. And after T it is written in the root of the word and in words starting with -tsia- (exception - tsyts, gypsy, chick, tskat, on tiptoe).
- 2. in suffixes of adjectives and in endings the nominative case, plural and gender of the case, the singular field C is written Y (cucumbers, Sinitsyn).
VOWELS IN SUFFIXES OF NOUNS, ADJECTIVES, VERBS, PARTICIPLES:
- 1. to correctly write gl in the suffix -ek, -ik, you need to inflect these nouns. If the ch falls out, then we write E, if it doesn’t fall out, then we write I (drop e to-zamo chk ah, finger And k-finger And ka).
- 2. if a participle or adjective is formed from a verb ending in -at, -yat, then A or Z is written before 1 or 2 N, if not in -at, -yat, then write E (added A hung, hung A n - uvesh at, roll up e naughty, fucked up e n - roller it).
- 3. if in the present or future tense the verb ends in -yva, -ivayu, then in the suffix -yva, -iva in an indefinite form, in the past tense in participles and gerunds we write Y, I (story I feel-story s wow, story s shaft, story s vaya).
If in the present or future tense the verb ends in -у, -уь, then in the suffix -ova, -eva in an indefinite form, in the past tense in participles and gerunds we write O, E (conversations wow- conversations O talk, talk O shaft, conversation O vavshiy).
- 4. in the suffixes of the active participles of the present tense - ush, - yush, -ash, -yash we write:
- a) the letters U, Yu, if the participle is formed from the verb of the 1st conjugation (kolol-kol yu strong, stronger, stronger at shchiy);
- b) letters A, Z, if the participle is formed from a verb of 2 conjugations (paint - red I shchiy).
- 5. in the suffixes of the passive participles of the present tense -em, -im we write:
- a) the letter E, if the participle is formed from the verb 1 conjugation (burn-burn e washed);
- b) the letter I, if the participle is formed from a verb of 2 conjugations (see-see And washed).
- 6. in the suffix -en of nouns ending in -mya they write E (on znam e neither - banner).
- 7. in adverbs with the prefix -iz, -do, -s, write A at the end, if the adverbs are formed from add to cat there are no these prefixes. In other adverbs with these prefixes at the end they write O (dry A- from dry without prefix, ahead of schedule O- from early with prefix).
CONSONANTS IN SUFFIXES OF NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES:
- 1. in the suffix of nouns -schik, -chik, after D-T, Z-S, Zh is written Ch, in other cases Shch (bound tch IR - binding T ah, gro zch ik - gru h it, kame nsch ik - not after D-T, Z-S, F).
- 2. the suffix K is written in adjectives:
- a) having a short form (colo To);
- b) formed from some nouns with a base in K, Ch, C (German ts- mute tsk oh, yeah h-tka tsk ii);
- c) others are attached, we write SK (matro With-sailor sk th - not on K, Ch, C).
VOWELS E and I IN ENDINGS:
1. E in the ending of a noun of the 1st declension in the dative and prepositional cases and of nouns of the 2nd declension in the prepositional case (located at the edge);
And, И in endings - it is written:
- a) for nouns of the 1st declension in the birth case (located at the edge And);
- b) for nouns of the 3rd declension (to walk through the wasteland And);
- c) for nouns in -iy, -ie, -iya, -mya in the genitive, dative and prepositional cases (attach to the stirrups And- on -me).
The letter I is written at the endings of numerals from 11 to 19.
- 2. at the endings of adjectives, ordinal numbers and participles of the masculine and neuter gender in the singular case it is written Y, I (winter And m in the evening, after four s m house), and in the prepositional letter the letter O, E (in winter e m forest, in large O m forest).
- 3. in unstressed personal endings of verbs, you must take the indefinite form. If the verb is of the 1st conjugation (not in -it and is not included in the 11th excl.), then at the end they write E (number e t - prick not on -it, not excluding, 1st conjugation; steles e t - lay excluding, 1st conjugation), if the verb is of the 2nd conjugation (na -it, except shave, lay and 11 excluding), then at the end they write I (kras And t - paint the 2nd conjugation). EXCEPTIONS: drive, hold, hear, breathe; endure, twist, depend, offend, hate, see, watch.
- 4. in the genitive, dative and prepositional cases of cardinal numbers from 11 to 19, the ending is written I (to twelve And hours).
Historical changes in the structure of words: some orthoepic (pronunciation) norms are changing less actively, but still noticeably. So, for example, in the 19th century, some words were pronounced with a different emphasis than now: muzy"ka, paspo"rt, a"english, etc. in the time of Pushkin, these accents were the norm. Before our eyes, the place of stress in the plural forms of short forms is changing adjectives: true, simple, close,” although some normative manuals still consider the first syllable to be stressed. Some morphological norms are also gradually changing: the noun COFFEE these days has 2 gender variants - my coffee and my coffee; in combinations, zero endings win - a kilogram of orange(s), a hundred gram(s) of bread.
Etymology as a branch of linguistics: linguistics studies a separate lexical group, the origin of words and describes in special dictionaries called etymological. A dictionary entry in an etymological dictionary provides information about the original Russian or borrowed origin of a word and the method of formation of this word, for example:
QUINOA. Common Slavic. Educated like a dialect loboda, using suf. - food from the same base (leb-
Prefix method: a prefix is added to the original, ready-made word. Moreover, the new word refers to the same part of speech as the original word (grandmother - great-grandmother, cheerful - very cheerful, some - some, none, read - finish reading, everywhere - everywhere).
Suffix method: a suffix is added to the base of the original word, so words of all independent parts of speech are formed. Words formed by suffixation are another part of speech. This method is the main one for the formation of nouns, adjectives and adverbs. The suffix is added not to the whole word, but to its base, and the base is sometimes modified: part of the base is cut off (to prepare - preparation), its sound composition changes, sounds alternate (grandson - grandson).
Prepositional-suffixal method consists in simultaneously attaching a prefix and a suffix to the base of the original word (parasite, candlestick, off-road, gift, get sick, in a businesslike way, in a maternal way, in the old way).
Suffixless method: the ending is discarded from the word (green - green), or the ending is discarded and the suffix is cut off at the same time (fly off - fly away, repeat - repeat).
Addition method consists of combining two words in one word (mower + hay = haymower), resulting in the formation of COMPOUND WORDS that contain 2 or more roots. They are formed from independent parts of speech, retaining the whole word or part of it. In a compound word m/d with roots m/b the connecting vowels O, E (atom O move, pool e meth).
Difficult words are formed:
- 1) adding whole words: sofa bed, pay phone, hero city, boarding school.
- 2) adding words without connecting vowels: party card, wall newspaper, drama club, camping trip; and with connecting vowels O, E, I: linguist, oil pipeline, digger, five-year-old.
- 3) with the help of connecting vowels O, E, connecting part of the stem of the word with the whole word: new building, reinforced concrete, frost-resistant, vegetable storage, housing and household, arts and crafts.
- 4) adding the stems with the simultaneous addition of a suffix: agriculture, dizzy.
- 5) by merging words: evergreen, instant, long-lasting, highly revered, tumbleweed.
Addition of abbreviated stems of the original words: higher educational institution - university.
Compound words are formed:
- 1) by adding syllables or parts of words of the full name: Komsomol - communist youth union, collective farm - collective farm, special correspondent - special correspondent, battalion commander - battalion commander, regional committee - regional committee).
- 2) adding the names of the initial letters: MSU - Moscow State University, CPSU, VDNKh.
- 3) adding the initial sounds: Moscow Art Theater, TASS - telegraph agency of the Soviet Union.
- 4) in a mixed way - adding a syllable with a sound, a sound with a syllable, letters with a sound, etc.: glavk - main committee, district - district department of public education, CDSA - central House of the Soviet Army.
Complex and complexly abbreviated words can serve to form new words: Komsomol - Komsomolets, Komsomol woman, in Komsomol.
The method of transitioning words from one part of speech to another, while being used as another part of speech, they acquire a different general meaning and lose a number of their grammatical features. For example: private fighter (adjective) - appeared private from the adjacent part (exists); first year of the five-year plan (counts) - Chernov- first student (adjective).
Word-formation means of expressive speech: these are the above-listed main ways of forming words (cheerful - cheerful, grandson - grandson).
Morphemic and derivational dictionaries: look a little higher in the “explanatory dictionaries”.