Western Europe 16-17 centuries. Culture of Western Europe in the 16th-17th centuries. On what principle are the rows compiled?

In almost all countries of Europe, central and western, these large countries in the 16th and 17th centuries at different rates, in different ways, with their own characteristics, but were gradually drawn into the process of maturation and formation of a market economy, market relations. Market economy - based on the principles of private property and market relations, private-capitalist, when not just property, but capital, i.e. property that operates makes a profit.

Market relations matured in the depths of the old economy, gradually destroying the old economy, displacing and replacing it.

Accordingly, bourgeois relations based on market principles were formed in public life.

The pace and paths were different. But despite this, almost all European countries experienced this process. And the 16-17th century was characterized by the process of initial accumulation of capital. This process of primitive accumulation occurred in each of these countries. In some it is very noticeable, in others not so much. It was noticeable where trade routes shifted, and these countries found themselves at the forefront of trade and economic development.

What is the process of initial capital accumulation? It is necessary to highlight the socio-economic and historical aspects. As a socio-economic phenomenon, the process of initial capital accumulation is the formation of start-up capital, primarily monetary capital, which then turns into physical capital, which is the basis of a new enterprise. Be it commercial, industrial, craft, etc.

And physical capital is those materialized funds that begin to produce certain products, some services and operations and generate corresponding income. Those. These are not just funds, but funds that work for the market, and bring the owner of this capital appropriate income and dividends.

Accordingly, carriers of this capital appear, owners capable of using it in an expanding, developing market economy. Those. the pre-bourgeoisie and bourgeoisie formally appear.

From a historical point of view, the process of primitive accumulation is a complex process, the destruction of the old socio-economic structure, the old economy, which has two tendencies. One of them is the destruction of the old economy, the separation of the means of production from small producers, cities and villages. Small producer - farmer, peasant, artisan, tavern owner. He loses these means of production and is forced to enter the labor market as a seller of his labor power or working head.

A layer of hired workers, the pre-proletariat and the proletariat, is formed.

At the same time, the owners of capital, money and material resources, a category of entrepreneurs with an appropriate social psychology and orientation, use this capital for its intended purpose in a market economy, for their own enrichment and development of the economy, and to satisfy all kinds of requests. And also in the process of primitive accumulation it uses various methods and ways to obtain initial capital. IN different countries ah these are different ways.

Since the end of the 15th century, 16th, 17th and even the 18th century - one of the most important ways to obtain initial capital is colonial expansion, the use of resources of the colonies, unequal exchange with the aborigines, be they Indians, Indians, the black population of Africa, etc., direct capture material assets, precious metals, slave trade.

All European countries: Spain, Portugal, Italy, France, Holland followed this path. Russia, to some extent, also behaved this way, developing the Far East and Siberia, imposing a fur tax on the local population.

Second method of accumulation Money, initial capital - the financial and banking system, the practice of government loans and usury. Usury was everywhere, in all countries. State practice loans and the banking system are France and Italy, where these banks appeared.

The third way of accumulating initial capital also existed in all countries, but was especially developed in France - this was the tax system. France had the largest population, so there was someone to collect taxes from. And the ransom system.

The fourth way is the policy of state protectionism, protection, patronage of one’s trade and industrial enterprises and the creation of monopolies protected by the king, baron, and ruler. France and even England stood out most before the great English Revolution of 1640.

The fifth way is the use of feudal privileges, including land ownership, as the basis for the formation of start-up capital. Enclosure processes in England.

The sixth way, which provided significant income, was Qatar, piracy, and war booty. Virtually all countries engaged in piracy. England and Holland abused this the most. France too. To some extent, even the English colonies in America.

This is how start-up capital was created. In virtually every country extreme forms of exploitation were used. 18 hour work day, from dawn to dusk. A good stick or whip as a form of encouragement. Operation in almost all countries.

The process of primitive accumulation of capital was based on various concepts of European thought as the ideological basis or theoretical prerequisites. These concepts informed the process. If we remember Protestantism and various doctrines, then within these Protestant teachings we can find a somewhat veiled, but quite clear justification for this: economy, frugality, everything should go into use, everything should bring some benefit.

There was a counter-reformation of ideas, a renewal of Catholicism in the fight against the Reformation. The Council of Trent considered this issue. Within the Catholic Church, a trend developed when one boss concentrated in his hands not one, but several positions that brought him a certain income. The Council of Trent ruled that this practice was contrary to the ideals of religion.

The most important thing is the emergence of the idea or doctrine of mercantilism. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, the doctrine of mercantilism as a major direction of economic thought was formed in Europe and underlay the development of the European market economy in the most advanced countries, and then in all countries.

There are 3 stages of development of the doctrine of mercantilism. The essence of the doctrine is that this subject analyzes the sphere of market circulation in order to justify the most effective means of increasing national or personal wealth.

On early stage, 16th century, monetarist stage of mercantilism - Jean Moden 1568 he substantiated the French version of early monetarist mercantilism. In England, William Strafford performed a similar function. The essence of the concept is that gold is considered the absolute form of wealth. We must strive to get as much gold as possible. Accumulate cash reserves within the country. Which way? Administrative regulation is to make such decisions and laws so that the money goes to the royal treasury and does not go anywhere. Those. regulation of monetary circulation, a ban on the export of specie outside the country or a sharp restriction of such export. And in order not to spend too much, you need to stand on your own soil, make do with your own goods and services, import less (import someone else’s) and more export (export your own).

17th century - a more developed stage of mercantilism begins - protectionist. Jean Baptiste Colbert under Louis 14 did a lot for the development of the French economy, its military power, and the strengthening of the regime of absolutism. Gold acts as the absolute form of wealth. The strategic goal is to ensure a growing and stable flow of money into the country. To do this, you need to develop your own manufactories, crafts, and trading enterprises, boost your own economy, stimulate foreign trade, with an emphasis on the export (export) of your goods. And there are fewer imports.

At this stage of protectionist mercantilism, monetary liberalization begins. Because if everything is too regulated, then money circulates slowly and it is difficult to make a profit. And when they begin to spin unhindered, then the turnover turns out to be more than can be accumulated by prohibitions and restrictions.

The late stage of mercantilism is analytical. All previous theories and scientific concepts are systematized. All these concepts apply to the era of manufacturing capitalism. The idea of ​​circulation as the main source of wealth becomes central. Those. a powerful working market machine: bought - sold, bought - sold. The higher the turnover, the more money goes to both the owner of the capital and deductions to the treasury. And the state gets richer.

Naturally, the emergence of a new economy, new socio-economic doctrines in one way or another affects the development of the sphere of law and public life. The 16th and 17th centuries were a special period for European countries. Not everyone agrees with this that European civilization in the 16th and 17th centuries was the heyday of the absolutist form of government. Those. The class monarchy inherited from the late Middle Ages is gradually transformed into an absolute monarchy.

You should know what a class monarchy is. You are all feudal lords, and I am the king. I am the first among you, I rule in your name. And an absolute monarchy - you are my subjects, and I am your boss. I do what I want. Under a class monarchy, the king-monarch relies only on his own resources, his domain. And the main power of the state is the line of vassalage, both economic and military. I depend on your support.

Under an absolute monarchy the situation changes. Absolute monarchy is political regime with legally unlimited power. The state is me. This is a legally unlimited form of government by one monarch. Absolutism as a historical phenomenon is a special socio-political system that takes shape during the transition from the Middle Ages to the modern era, i.e. from traditional to industrial society.

This special socio-political system transition period reflects the temporary balance of socio-political forces. The absolute ruler is, as it were, a counterweight between various categories of society, between the ordinary nobility and the titled nobility, between the nobility and the church. In some states the church is very strong.

Building on the growing urban population, the new economy, and the serving nobility, the absolute monarchy gradually subjugates all categories and strata of society.

Absolute monarchy is characterized by the following: the creation of a common state power. A national bureaucratic apparatus, a bureaucratic machine, is being created.

A permanent army subordinate to the monarch is formed. He no longer depends on the military support of his vassals. A national tax system is being formed. Those. The national tax system applies to all layers and territories. The monarch is no longer financially dependent on the support of his subjects.

Economic development and state interests require the unification of legislation, administrative structure and the system of weights and measures. For example, in France the unit of weight is the livre. The Parisian livre is 490 grams, and the livre in Marseille is different.

Creation of a national judicial system and gradual displacement of local judicial systems. The formation of a state church is also a powerful support of absolute power. An absolute monarchy is distinguished by the implementation of a unified national economic policy.

The solution to all these problems allows the sovereign to break the willfulness of the large feudal lords and turn this nobility into a court nobility, which depends on the favor of the monarch. And the once free feudal lords are gradually degenerating into “moseks” who run around the court and see if they are granted something. And they argue about who from their midst will slip the king another favorite, their wives, daughters, just to gain influence on the king and share in the fat pie.

Absolutism had justification in both the legal and political spheres. And many thinkers, in one way or another, advocated the introduction of an absolute form of control.

In England, James 1 Stuart became not only a king, but also a theorist of absolutism at the beginning of the 17th century.

And also the thinker Thomas Hobbes.

In France, Jean Moden. And in Russia - Feofan Prokopovich and Simeon of Polotsk.

Each country in Europe had its own characteristics in the development of absolutism. Different shapes absolutist regimes were born.

In particular, there is a concept despotic absolutism. The most striking manifestation is Louis 14, the Sun King, 2nd half of the 17th and early 18th centuries. This is not an oriental despot, of course. He could not order the population of Paris to be buried alive, or half the country to be killed. This is personalized government system. The state is me. This system is focused on pursuing policies either in the interests of the monarch himself, or in the interests of the court guard, or in the interests of the dynasty.

In France, despotic absolutism lasted until the mid-18th century. Then it was replaced briefly by enlightened absolutism. And at the end of the 18th century it evolved in a conservative direction, and it can be called conservative absolutism. This is a state system of government that is focused on pursuing a protective policy, maintaining the status quo of the regime, preserving social, political, ideological postulates in the interests of some feudal clans, groups, etc., based on the ideals of traditional mentality, i.e. Tsar-Father, this is a creation of the will of the Lord, his vicegerent on earth. And the use of ritual forms of behavior at court that have developed over centuries, ceremonies when the king undresses, dresses publicly, publicly conceives an heir, so that there is no doubt that this is the heir. This is the use of ritual stereotypes to strengthen the regime. There is no talk of any breakthrough or progress here.

This is France, shortly before enlightened absolutism failed and there was a shift towards conservatism, leading to the great French Revolution.

Theological absolutism. The head of secular power is at the same time the head of spiritual power. England - the monarch is simultaneously the head of secular power and the Anglican Church.

Focal or regional absolutism. This is Italy. On the territory of the Holy Roman Empire there are a lot of such states, possessions, and city-states. This is a form of government or a state system that is formed in a situation of state decentralization, which is projected onto the local political, legal, religious, social and other features of these small territories. Like a vinaigrette: here is a strong monarch, there is a military man, etc. It seems that the country of Germany is a large country, and there are many possessions, so by moving through several principalities during the day, you can discover several forms of government.

Enlightened absolutism. This is a regime or form of government or state system that is oriented towards national consolidation. There is some discord in society. Thanks to the development of a market economy, merchants appear - they want one thing, the intelligentsia appears - they want something else. It is necessary to pursue a policy aimed at consolidating the people and flexible assimilation of new social groups, the same merchants, owners of manufactories, scientists, who need to be somehow attached to the system so that they are not critics, but an additional wheel, including before pursuing an active foreign policy of conquest or protectionist policy in the interests of the development of capital, their own manufactories, trade protection. And also through supporting educational ideology, which Catherine the Great did very well. Scientists for some period act as allies rather than opponents of the regime.

Each country could have its own form of absolutism.

National features of absolutism:

France:

The high role of the state bureaucracy

Active protectionist policies

Active external expansion, building a colonial empire, expanding the borders of the kingdom, ensuring secure borders

As the religious-civil conflict smooths out, a departure from confession-oriented policies

England:

Absence standing army in comparison with Spain, France, Austria. We can say that England is a non-militarized country.

Lack of an extensive structure of state bureaucracy and officials

A lot of self-government

Preservation of the significant political role of the representative body of power - Parliament. The oldest representative body originating in Europe. Preservation of the significant political role of representative government.

England is characterized by an active confessional policy. The Anglican Church, the fight against Catholicism. In the 17th century, a clash with Puritan movements led to the great English Revolution.

Before the English Revolution, England pursued a passive protectionist policy, but since the revolution of 1651 there has been a transition to an active protectionist policy.

Germany:

Absolutism is characterized by dependence on religious factors in politics

Focus on maintaining regional autonomy. Germany was fragmented until the mid-19th century. These lands were alienated from each other

Significant differentiation of regional absolutist regimes. Here are 2 German states. One is with a despotic regime, the second is conservative, the third is enlightened absolutism. And all within one area.

Spain:

Rigid centralized power

Active confessional protective policy (remember the Inquisition, the Catholic Church)

The high political role of the nobility, especially the grandees and idle hidalgos

Active foreign policy, creation of the largest colonial empire in 50-60 years

Wars against Turkey, in other European countries. The regime did not have enough intelligence or strength to develop the domestic economy



The 16th century is a century of great spiritual, cultural, political, religious changes and upheavals in the life of Europe.

By the end of the 15th century. The culture of the Renaissance (Renaissance), which originated in the Italian city-states back in the 14th century, spread to other countries of Western Europe.

The turbulent processes of that era caused profound changes in the ideology of Western European society.

Representatives of humanism opposed secular sciences and education to church-scholastic scholarship. Secular (humanitarian) sciences studied not God with his hypostases, but man, his relationships with other people and his aspirations, using not a scholastically applied syllogism, but observation, experience, rationalistic assessments and conclusions.

Humanism XV-XVI centuries. did not become a movement that captured the broad masses of the people. The culture of the Renaissance was the property of a relatively small layer educated people different countries of Europe, connected by common scientific, philosophical, aesthetic interests, communicating using the common European language of that time - Latin. Most humanists had a negative attitude towards religious movements, including reformation ones, whose participants, in turn, recognized only the religious form of ideology and were hostile to deism and atheism.

Printing, invented in the mid-15th century, played an important role in the widespread dissemination of both religious and secular ideas. and received widespread use in the 16th century.

N. Machiavelli's teaching on state and politics.

One of the first theorists of the new era was the Italian Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527). Machiavelli was for a long time an official of the Florentine Republic, having access to a number of state secrets. The life and work of Machiavelli date back to the period of the beginning of the decline of Italy, until the 16th century. formerly the most advanced country in Western Europe. The writings of Machiavelli laid the foundation for the political and legal ideology of the New Age. His political teaching was free from theology; it is based on the study of the activities of contemporary governments, the experience of states of the Ancient world, and Machiavelli’s ideas about the interests and aspirations of participants in political life.

Machiavelli viewed the state (regardless of its form) as a kind of relationship between the government and its subjects, based on the fear or love of the latter. The state is unshakable if the government does not give rise to conspiracies and disturbances, if the fear of its subjects does not develop into hatred, and love into contempt.

Machiavelli's focus is on the real ability of government to command its subjects. The book "The Sovereign" and other works contain a number of rules, practical recommendations, based on his idea of ​​the passions and aspirations of people and social groups, on examples of history and contemporary practice of Italian and other states.

After writing the treatise "The Prince" (1512), Machiavelli became a European celebrity. A very ambiguous fame haunts him: on the one hand, N. Machiavelli formulated the subject of political science, but he is condemned for creating a blasphemous work (with anti-Christian philosophy).

In his opinion, there are three forces in history: God, Fate and the Great Personality. Machiavelli was the first to pay attention to the role of personality in history.

The main features of his teaching:

1. Humanism: “A person can do anything: change the will of God, change his destiny, a person can be great even in crime. A person can change the course of history.”

2. Anti-fatalism: the desire to change one’s destiny.

3. Realism. Described what is there.

The essence of the treatise "The Sovereign" is the doctrine of politics.

A) Politics is an experimental science about the real state of things. He studies the world of power as it is.

B) Politics is the science of ways to seize and retain power. The first formulated the concept of power. Power is a state of dominance and submission.

C) Politics is a purposeful type of human activity. The goal is always the same - to support and offer power.

D) Politics is a special immoral sphere of public life; in the struggle for power one cannot be guided by moral criteria. Moral judgment cannot be used in assessing political actions.

D) Politics is autonomous in relation to religion.

E) Politics is a sphere where every end justifies the means.

G) Politics is an art. Politics cannot be taught, personality is of paramount importance. There are no permanent means of success in politics. The choice of means depends on the situation.

Basics of power:

1. Material foundations - strength. Numerous loyal army. The politician himself must have the principles of a commander.

2. Power must have a social support - the people. (Machiavelli recommends relying on the people; it is better to exterminate the aristocracy.)

3. Psychological grounds (feelings). The people should love and (more) fear the ruler. There are psychological feelings that are harmful to power - hatred and contempt. You can't rob people. Contempt is caused by the inactivity of the ruler, his cowardice. The policy of the "golden mean". The ruler must learn to be unkind (the ability to lie, kill). The ruler must appear to be a great man.

Machiavelli considered the security of the individual and the inviolability of property to be the goal of the state and the basis of its strength. The most dangerous thing for a ruler, Machiavelli tirelessly repeated, is to encroach on the property of his subjects - this inevitably gives rise to hatred (and you will never rob so much that there is not a knife left). Machiavelli called the inviolability of private property, as well as the security of the individual, the benefits of freedom and considered the goal and basis of the strength of the state.

Machiavelli reproduces Polybius's ideas about the emergence of the state and the cycle of forms of government; Following the ancient authors, he gives preference to a mixed (monarchy, aristocracy and democracy) form.

Religion must be one of the attributes of the state and must have state status. The harm of Christianity for the state, because weakness of state value in the state.

Political ideal (dual).

1. The most optimal is the Florentine Republic.

2. In the treatise "The Prince", absolute monarchy is the best form of government. The creation of a unified Italian state justified any means necessary.

The works of Machiavelli had a tremendous influence on the subsequent development of political and legal ideology. They formulated and substantiated the main program demands of the bourgeoisie: the inviolability of private property, the security of person and property, the republic as best remedy ensuring the “benefits of freedom”, condemnation of the feudal nobility, subordination of religion to politics and a number of others. The most insightful ideologists of the bourgeoisie highly appreciated Machiavelli's methodology, especially the liberation of politics from theology, the rationalistic explanation of state and law, and the desire to determine their connection with the interests of people.

10 question. The doctrine of Jean Bodin about state and law.

J. BODIN (1530-1596). A lawyer and politician, he was elected from the third estate to the States General. He is a theorist of absolutism in France. He is a creator state law. "6 books about the republic." For the first time he established the concept of sovereignty as an obligatory feature of the state.

State- right control of many families, vested with supreme power.

1) The state acts in accordance with justice, natural and divine laws.

2) Family - main basis states. Domestic power is similar to political power, but governs the private domain, while political government governs the common property. But this power should not absorb family life and private property. Family power must be united and belong to the husband. He opposed slavery.

3) Supreme power - constant And absolute. A person in authority can make any laws; he is subject to divine and natural law and is above human laws.

The structure of the supreme power (form of government):

1) Monarchy

2) Aristocracy

3) Democracy

Regarding perverted forms, Boden notes that these are different qualities of the same forms of power, but are by no means independent. He also rejects mixed forms, because they lose to the unity of power.

Boden believed that monarchy- best form. Other forms of government can only exist in small states. The monarchy must certainly be hereditary and transmitted by primogeniture. Succession to the throne by a woman is not allowed, as it is contrary to natural law. The division of state power between several heirs is also not allowed. The power of the monarch is limited only by divine and natural law.

To maintain calm in the state, the ruler must stand above party interests, and this can only be achieved in a monarchy.

Bodin highly appreciates the role of the States General, which represents the interests of all three classes and restrains the desire of the supreme power for arbitrariness, publicizing abuses. The prerogative of the States General to give consent to new taxes is especially important, because You cannot take someone else's property without the consent of its owner. Thus Bodin contradicts himself on this issue.

Political changes in the state should not be made at once. Of all the reasons leading to revolutions, Boden gives first place to the uneven distribution of wealth.

Considers religion from the point of view of the state and state benefit. He considered it necessary to prohibit all debates about religion, because they shake the truth in the minds and breed discord. State power must stand above differences of religions and maintain a balance between them. You cannot force anyone to believe, i.e. Boden defends freedom of conscience.

"Theory of climate and soil." Fertility affects the difference in rights, because the inhabitants of barren lands are more enterprising, prone to crafts and arts. The inhabitants of fertile lands have no such motives. All this is reflected in the state structure: the brave inhabitants of the North and the mountaineers cannot stand any government other than that of the people or establish elective monarchies. The pampered inhabitants of the south and plains easily submit to the authority of a single ruler.

…………………….

The theory of state sovereignty. Political doctrine J. Bodin

Religious wars significantly interfered with the development of industry and trade; France was breaking up into a number of hostile and warring camps.

Jean Bodin (1530-1596) substantiated absolutism and criticized the monarchomachs during the period of religious wars. A lawyer by training, a deputy of the third estate at the Estates General in Blois, Bodin opposed feudal decentralization and religious fanaticism. In the essay “Six Books on the State” (published in French in 1576, in Latin for all of Europe in 1584), Bodin first formulated and broadly substantiated the concept of sovereignty as an essential feature of the state: “Sovereignty is the absolute and permanent power of the state ... Absolute power over citizens and subjects, not bound by any laws.”

The power of the state is permanent and absolute; it is the highest and independent power both within the country and in relations with foreign powers. Above the bearer of sovereign power are only God and the laws of nature.

Sovereignty, according to Bodin, means, first of all, the independence of the state from the Pope, from the church, from the German emperor, from the estates, from another state. Sovereignty as the supreme power includes the rights to make and repeal laws, declare war and make peace, appoint senior officials, exercise the supreme court, the right to pardon, the right to mint coins, establish weights and measures, and collect taxes.

In his doctrine of the state, Boden largely follows Aristotle, but not the Aristotle distorted and mystified by medieval scholasticism, but the true Aristotle, interpreted in the light of the subsequent history of political and legal institutions.

The state of Boden defines how legal management many families and what they have in common, on the basis of sovereign power. The state is precisely legal governance, consistent with justice and the laws of nature; by law it differs, as Cicero noted, from a gang of robbers or pirates, with whom one cannot enter into alliances, enter into agreements, wage war, or make peace, and who are not subject to the general laws of war.

Boden calls the family the foundation and cell of the state. The state is a collection of families, not individuals; if they are not united into families, they will die out, but the people who make up the state do not die. Like Aristotle, he distinguishes three types of power relations in the family: marital, parental and lordly. Unlike Aristotle, Bodin was not a supporter of slavery. He considered slavery not always natural, a source of unrest and unrest in the state. Boden stood for the gradual abolition of relations of feudal dependence close to slavery where they still existed.

Bodin is one of the first critics of Utopia. Approving some thoughts of the “unforgettable Chancellor of England T. More” about the state order of Utopia, Boden persistently disputes his main idea. A state based on community of property, Bodin wrote, “would be directly opposed to the laws of God and nature.” Private property is related to the laws of nature, since “natural law prohibits taking what belongs to others.” “Property equality is disastrous for states,” Bodin tirelessly repeated. Rich and poor exist in every state; if you try to equalize them, invalidate obligations, cancel contracts and debts, “then you can’t expect anything other than the complete destruction of the state, because any ties connecting one person with another are lost.”

Boden attached primary importance to the form of the state. He rejects the widespread division of forms of state into correct and incorrect, since it only expresses subjective assessment existing states. Supporters of the rule of one person call it “monarchy,” opponents call it “tyranny.” Adherents of minority power call such power “aristocracy”, those dissatisfied with it - “oligarchy”, etc. Meanwhile, Bodin reasoned, the essence of the matter is only in who owns sovereignty, real power: one, a few or the majority. On the same basis, Bodin denies the mixed form of the state - power cannot be divided “equally”, some element will be of decisive importance in the state; whoever has the highest power to make laws is the state as a whole.

Boden had a negative attitude towards democracy: in democratic state there are a lot of laws and authorities, but the common cause is in decline; the crowd, the people, cannot establish anything good, persecutes the rich, uproots and expels the best, elects the worst.

Bodin also did not approve of the aristocracy, a state where power belongs to a college of nobles: among the aristocrats smart people few, resulting in stupid majority rule; decision-making is associated with discord, with the struggle of parties and groups; the state does not energetically enough suppress the indignation of the people, who are always rebelling against the nobles. For the same reasons, an aristocracy is unthinkable in a large state.

Best form Boden considered the state to be a monarchy. The monarch, as naturally as the god of the Universe, commands his subjects without interference; he has the power to own right(first acquired by force, then transferred by right of inheritance).

Referring to reason and history, Bodin wrote that initially all states were created by conquest and violence (and not by voluntary agreement, as some tyrant fighters claimed). As a result of a just war, master (patrimonial) states arose, in which the monarch rules over his subjects as the father of a family. Such are the monarchies of the East.

In Europe, Bodin reasoned, master states turned into “legal monarchies,” in which the people obey the laws of the monarch, and the monarch obeys the laws of nature, leaving natural freedom and property to the subjects. The monarch must not violate the “laws of God and the laws of nature,” which arose before all states and are inherent in all peoples. The monarch, according to Boden, must be true to his word, comply with treaties and promises, regulations on succession to the throne, on the inalienability of state property, respect personal freedom, family relationships, religions (the more of them there are, the better - there are fewer opportunities for the creation of influential warring factions) , inviolability of property.

Boden disputed the widespread opinion among tyrant fighters that the monarchy should be electoral - during the election period, unrest, discord and civil strife are inevitable; the elected monarch does not care about the common property, since it is unknown who will succeed him on the throne; The hereditary monarchy, which is also traditional in France, does not have these shortcomings (tyranny fighters tried to prove that previously monarchs were elected).

Bodin considered the best royal monarchy - a state in which the supreme power (sovereignty) belongs entirely to the monarch, and the management of the country (the procedure for appointment to positions) is complex, that is, combining aristocratic principles (for a number of positions, mainly in the court and army, the king appoints only nobles) and democratic (some positions are available to everyone).

Question 11. Utopian socialism in England in the 16th century. (“Utopia” by T. More).

Initially, the ideas of socialism were clothed in the thoughts of Christian ethical authors about the kingdom of God. How the complete idea developed in the 16th and 17th centuries. This is the time of the emergence of new capitalist forms of exploitation.

T. MOR (1478-1535) the founder of the idea. In 1516, “ golden book, as useful as it is funny, about the best structure of the state and about the new island of Utopia.” Thomas More is a lawyer by training; “Utopia” was created by him during a trip to Flanders as part of the embassy.

“Utopia” is translated from Greek as “a place that does not exist.” Part 1 - criticism of the political and social vices of modern European states. Part 2 is about the non-existent island of Utopia.

Indicates a large number of nobles who rob the people, the authorities, instead of punishing the guilty, attack the poor with bloody laws. The state is a conspiracy of the rich, advocating for their well-being under the guise of the state. Private property is evil.

The island of Utopia is not far from America, on it 54 cities live in complete communism. The family is the basic social unit. In the city, the family is engaged in a certain craft. In a village family there are 40 adults (in a city - from 10 to 16 people), if a child wants to engage in another craft, he must be adopted by another family.

Around the city there are fields that are cultivated by the townspeople one by one. Some of the townspeople move there, giving way to those who, after 2 years of working in the fields, return to the city. All produced products are transported to public houses, from here the head of the family receives everything necessary for the family. They have lunch in common dining rooms. Working day 6 hours.

The rise in productivity and abundance is explained by:

1. The absence of idle people (rich people, warriors, beggars)

2. Women work like men

3. Officials and those called upon to engage in science are exempt from physical labor. If they do not justify themselves, they are returned to physical labor.

4. There are fewer needs themselves, because there are no empty whims and imaginary needs. Everyone wears the same clothes, houses are determined by lot; gold and silver are kept only in case of external war.

There is no community of wives. Marriages are strictly protected by law and are indissoluble. Divorce is possible in case of adultery of the spouse, or unbearable hardship of character. The person responsible for the divorce cannot remarry. An insult to the marriage union is lifelong slavery.

Unpleasant work is performed by slaves and dedicated people. Slaves - those convicted of a crime and ransomed abroad, sentenced to death, as well as prisoners of war taken with weapons in their hands.

The governance of 54 cities is carried out on an elective basis. All officials are elected for 1 year with the exception of the prince, who is elected for life. Important affairs of the city are decided by the Assembly of Officials, and sometimes by the People's Assembly.

30 families elect phylarch. At the head of the 10 phylarchs stands protophylarch.

Head of State prince and C enat(located in the capital to resolve general affairs) three deputies from each city.

The religions of the Utopians are different, but they all converge on the worship of a single deity. There are few laws, no lawyers.

The social structure of Utopia is built on 2 principles that were denied in the ancient world: equality of people and the sanctity of work.

XVI - XVII centuries form a special era in the history of Europe - the end of the Middle Ages and the advent of the New Age. The conventional term “modern time” appears simultaneously with the emergence of a three-part periodization of world history ( ancient world, middle Ages, new story). This model originated in the works of Italian humanists of the 15th - 16th centuries. and received its final form in the work of a German historian of the 17th century. K. Koehler “Three-part story.” Contemporaries of the events under consideration, thus, called their own era a new time, realizing its qualitative difference from previous centuries.

The chronological framework of modern times is not determined by modern historical science. Various events are considered as a time line between the Middle Ages and modern times: the conquest of Constantinople by the Turks (1453), the discovery of America by Columbus (1492), the English bourgeois revolution (1640-1660), the end of the first pan-European - Thirty Years' War (1648). A number of authors extend the dominance of the feudal formation until the 18th century, right up to the Great French Revolution (1789-1799). However, the most commonly used concept places the beginning of a new era at the turn of the 15th - 16th centuries.

New times are characterized by the emergence of capitalist relations in the depths of feudal society: the formation of national markets, the emergence of manufactories ( industrial enterprises, based on the division of labor) and civilian labor, creating conditions for free enterprise. The guild system and serfdom are becoming a thing of the past. The economic importance of cities is growing, along with the noble class - the nobility - the aristocracy of wealth - the bourgeoisie - is gaining more and more weight in society.

Great importance Great geographical discoveries, primarily the European exploration of the American continent, contributed to the genesis of capitalism. International trade routes are shifting westward, from the Mediterranean basin to the Atlantic region. The material resources of the New World flow into Europe, giving impetus to the development of production and facilitating the accumulation of capital.

In the political sphere, the era of modern times was marked by the formation of nations and national states in Europe (Spain, Portugal, France, England). Concepts emerge state sovereignty- the supremacy and independence of state power both within the country and in the international arena. The edge of these theories was directed against the political claims of the Catholic Church and large feudal lords. The political unification of the country led to the strengthening of royal power and the formation of absolutism. Balancing between feudal lords and the third estate, Western European monarchs achieved significant independence from these two property-owning classes. The bureaucracy begins to support the royal power, and the feudal militia and mercenary troops are replaced by a regular army.

Changes also affected the spiritual sphere: the expansion of the horizons of Europeans after the Great Geographical Discoveries, the spread of literature due to the invention of printing (1445), the development of humanistic culture (Renaissance). An important phenomenon in the social life of Europe in the 16th century. there was a Reformation that ended spiritual hegemony Roman Catholic Church. Since the 17th century. Science - experimental knowledge and rationalistic philosophy (R. Descartes, B. Spinoza, I. Newton, G. Galileo) occupy an increasingly important position.

At the same time, the European continent of the 16th - 17th centuries. as a whole continued to remain feudal. The political unification of a number of countries (Italy, Germany) was not accomplished. The ruling class was still the landowning nobility, extracting income from the exploitation of dependent peasants. In the 17th century conservation of old structures takes place (in Spain, Italy, South-West Germany), victory of the counter-reformation. The economic crisis, aggravation of military-political conflicts, mass popular movements gave historians reason to talk about crisis of the 17th century.

Nevertheless, the main line of development of Western European societies was aimed at the formation of bourgeois relations. Their victory was consolidated by a series of national revolutions: in the Netherlands, England, and France. The result of these bourgeois revolutions was the establishment of public control over the state apparatus (republic or constitutional monarchy) and the subordination of the state to the interests of the bourgeoisie.

Eastern European societies developed in the opposite direction. In the countries east of the Elbe in the 16th - 17th centuries. the nobility is strengthened and serfdom is formed, which previously did not exist there ( second edition of serfdom). This process was closely connected with the genesis of capitalism in Western Europe. Eastern European countries are drawn into commodity-money relations with this region, becoming its agricultural periphery. Noble estates acquired the character of market-oriented large farms. The need for cheap labor leads to the enslavement of the peasantry and the spread of corvee labor.

For Russia XVI - XVII centuries. were the time of the final formation of those state and public structures that ensured the originality of national history. Despite the chronological proximity of a number of processes (the unification of the country, the strengthening of royal power, the creation of an estate-representative monarchy), the development paths of Russia and European countries begin to diverge.

Changes in Europe in the 16th - 17th centuries:

1) The foundations of the capitalist mode of production were laid. Manufactories are being built because free capital and hired workers appeared.

2) Great geographical discoveries brought fabulous incomes to Europe. The development of international trade strengthened the economy.

3) The need for a new foreign policy(colonial expansion). Strengthened central power, established in Europe absolutism(a form of government in which the monarch has unlimited power).

4) The first bourgeois revolutions take place, which will lead to the fall of the autocracy, the first bourgeois republics are established, in which human rights and freedoms are respected.

5) The influence of the church has been weakened, so there is a rapid development of education, science, philosophy, art and literature.

Modernization- this is the renewal of means of production in connection with technical progress, the emergence of new technologies, machines and mechanisms.

Renaissance(Renaissance) is an era of European culture when the culture of the Middle Ages is replaced by the culture of modern times. Interest in antiquity, palace architecture, joyful holidays, etc., has been revived since the 15th century.

Reformation(translated as transformation) is a massive religious movement in Europe, aimed at transforming Catholic Christianity.

Ideologists - Martin Luther (1483-1546) and John Calvin (1509 - 1564).

They opposed the mediating role of the church between God and man, against church taxes and monastic land ownership. As a result of the Reformation, a new movement of the Christian Church will appear - Protestantism, which is established as the state religion in most European countries: Germany, England, France and Navarre (Huguenot movement), Switzerland, Holland, Denmark, Sweden, etc.

Question 2. The transition from traditional to industrial society in Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries.

Western Europe is the first civilization in which the first bourgeois relations arose, gained strength and won victory, i.e. a formational shift occurred - from feudalism to capitalism (and if we use a civilizational approach - a transition from a traditional society to an industrial one). They first appeared in major trading cities of Italy back in end of the 14th century V. In the XV–XVI centuries. spread to many countries of Western Europe: Germany, France, England, Spain and Portugal. Over time, this process has affected most of the world.

1) Traditional society characterized by the dominance of rural subsistence farming and primitive crafts. In such societies, the extensive path of development and manual labor predominate. Property belongs to the community or the state. Private property is neither sacred nor inviolable. Social structure traditional society is class-corporate, stable and immobile. There is virtually no social mobility. Human behavior in society is regulated by customs, beliefs, and unwritten laws. The political sphere is dominated by the church and the army. The person is completely alienated from politics. Power seems to him to be of greater value than right and law. The spiritual sphere of human existence has priority over the economic one.

2) B industrial society The base is machine-based industry, and the intensive development path prevails. Stable economic growth is accompanied by an increase in real income per capita. IN social sphere social mobility is significant. The number of peasants is sharply declining and urbanization is taking place. New classes emerge - the industrial proletariat and the bourgeoisie. Humans are characterized by signs of individualism and rationalism. There is a secularization of consciousness. In the political sphere, the role of the state is increasing, and a democratic regime is gradually emerging. Society is dominated by law and law.

Signs of feudalism:

• subsistence farming, manual labor;
• the presence of two classes - feudal lords and dependent peasants;
• feudal lords own the means of production, peasants have personal ownership of tools and perform various duties in favor of the feudal lords.

Signs of capitalism:

• commodity-money relations, machine labor;
• the presence of two classes - the bourgeoisie and the proletariat;
• The bourgeoisie owns the means of production, the proletariat is personally free and is forced to sell its ability to work.

Question 3. Great geographical discoveries and the beginning of European colonial expansion.

The most famous navigators and their discoveries.

1) Bartolomeo Dias (1488) – Portuguese.

He was the first European to sail around Africa to India.

2) Christopher Columbus (1492)

Discovered the island of Haiti (Cuba), San Salvador and the Sargasso Sea. He was declared king of the annexed lands in America.

3) Amerigo Vespucci (1499-1504)

He was the first to guess that America is not India, but a new continent and discovered Brazil.

4) Vasco da Gama (1497-1498)

Traveled to India around Africa. Thanks to him, the Portuguese colonization of India begins.

5) Ferdinand Magellan (1519-1521)

First trip around the world.

6) Hernan Cortes - Spanish conquistador, conqueror of Mexico (1519-1521). He brutally dealt with Indian tribes.

7) Ermak, Vasily Polyakov, Semyon Dezhnev, Erofey Khabarov (1581-1640) -

development of Siberia.

8) William Barents (1596-1597)

Discovered the Barents Sea and the island of Spitsbergen.

The meaning of great geographical discoveries:

1) Breakthrough in the economy.

2) New in culture, zoology, botany, ethnography.

3) New food products appear: potatoes, corn, tomatoes, tobacco, coffee, cocoa, chocolate, cola and rubber.

Question 4. Europe in the 17th century: state and power. Diplomacy. Coalition system.

What was happening in Europe in the 17th century?

The formation of centralized states, religious wars, famine, revolutions. The first bourgeois revolution took place in Holland in 1566. As a result, Holland, which was a colony of Spain, achieved independence, created a parliament and became the best European country in trade and shipbuilding.

The Valois dynasty rules, but all the kings - Francis II and Charles I - do not rule for long and die childless. In 1572, on the initiative of the Queen Mother Catherine de Medici, St. Bartholomew's Night took place, when all the Huguenots (Protestants) who came to Paris for the wedding of Henry of Navarre and Margaret of Valois were killed. After the death of the last king of the Valois dynasty, Henry III, who died young and childless, the dynasty came to an end.

The most famous kings of France

Henry IV of Navarre (1594-1610) became king of France and founded the new Bourbon dynasty. His son Louis XIII (1610-1643) dissolved the parliament - the States General. Under him, the country was ruled by a brilliant politician who achieved prosperity for France - Cardinal Richelieu. Louis XIV (1643-1715) built Versailles and strengthened absolutism. His son Louis XV (1715 – 1774) continued his policies. His grandson Louis XVI was executed by the Jacobins in January 1793. In October of the same year, his wife Marie Antoinette was executed.

Germany.

The birthplace of the Reformation: Martin Luther and John Calvin, the ideologists of Protestantism, lived in Germany.

The most famous war of the 17th century was the Thirty Years' War, in which all European countries took part. (1618-1648).

Question 5. English Revolution (1640-1649).

In 1640, England was a leading power and had a first-class navy. The nobles wanted the transfer legislative branch Parliament, which was dissolved by King Charles I in 1628. The uprising was led by Oliver Cromwell, who created a parliamentary army, defeated the royal troops and captured King Charles I, who was executed by court in 1649.

England became a republic. Cromwell chaired the High Council and served as Lord Protector until his death in 1658. Oliver Cromwell's son was unable to retain power and civil war begins again in England.

In 1688, a coup d'état took place in England, establishing a constitutional monarchy with limited power of the king. The ruler of Holland, William of Orange, was elected king.

Question 6.“Enlightened absolutism” in Austria, Prussia, Russia.

"Enlightened absolutism" is a form of government of the 17th and 18th centuries, in which the monarch has absolute power, but in these states people feel free. The press prints almost freely. Many appear educational institutions, Academy of Sciences. Funded Scientific research and expeditions. Emperors and empresses corresponded with the most famous philosophers and enlighteners (Voltaire, Denis Diderot).

Examples: Austria (Maria Theresa (1765-1780)), Prussia (Frederick II (1740-1786)), France (Louis XIV (1643-1715)), Russia (Catherine II (1762-1796)).

Question 7. Age of Enlightenment: Theory of Social Equality. Cult of Reason.

The Age of Enlightenment is the 18th century, which gave Europe freedom of speech, the flourishing of philosophy, science, culture, and education.

During the 16th-18th centuries. Geographical discoveries constantly expanded the horizons of Europeans: the world was rapidly expanding. If in the 15th century. The lands well known in Europe stretched from India to Ireland, then by the beginning of the 19th century the Spaniards, English, Dutch, and French owned the whole world. The streak of outstanding discoveries begun by Nicolaus Copernicus was continued by the works of Isaac Newton, who formulated the law of universal gravitation. As a result of their work, by the end of the 17th century. the old picture of the world has become yesterday even in the eyes of ordinary people: the Earth - the biblical center of the universe - from the center of the Universe has turned into one of the few satellites of the sun; the Sun itself turned out to be just one of the stars that complement the endless Cosmos.

This is how I was born modern science. It broke the traditional connection with theology and proclaimed experiment, mathematical calculation and logical analysis as its foundations. This led to the emergence of a new world science, in which the concepts of “mind”, “nature”, “natural law” became the main ones. From now on, the world was seen as a gigantic complex mechanism operating according to the exact laws of mechanics (it is no coincidence that mechanical watches were a favorite image in the writings of politicians, biologists and doctors in the 17th and early 18th centuries). In such a well-functioning system there was almost no room for God. He was given the role of the originator of the world, the root cause of all things. The world itself, as if having received an impetus, subsequently developed independently, in accordance with natural laws, which the Creator created as universal, unchangeable and accessible to knowledge. This doctrine was called deism, had many followers among naturalists of the 17th and 18th centuries.

But perhaps most important step which I dared new philosophy, there was an attempt to extend the laws existing in nature to human society. A conviction emerged and grew stronger: both the man himself and public life subject to immutable natural laws. They only need to be discovered, recorded, and achieved accurate and universal execution. A path was found to create a perfect society built on “reasonable” foundations - the key to the future happiness of mankind.

The search for natural laws of social development contributed to the emergence of new teachings about man and the state. One of them - natural law theory, developed by European philosophers of the 17th century. T. Hobbes and D. Locke. They proclaimed the natural equality of people, and therefore the natural right of every person to property, freedom, equality before the law, and human dignity. Based on the theory of natural law, a new view of the origin of the state was formed. The English philosopher Locke believed that the transition of once free people to “civil society” was the result of a “social contract” concluded between peoples and rulers. The latter, according to Locke, are transferred to some part of the “natural rights” of fellow citizens (justice, foreign relations, etc.). Rulers are obliged to protect other rights - freedom of speech, religion and the right to private property. Locke denied the divine origin of power: monarchs must remember that they are part of “civil society.”

A whole era began in the history of Western culture, bringing with it a new, deeply different from the medieval, understanding of the world and man. She was named the Age of Enlightenment- by the name of a powerful ideological movement that by the mid-18th century. widely covered the countries of Europe and America. In the 18th-19th centuries. it had a strong influence on science, socio-political thought, art and literature of many peoples. That's why the 18th century went down in history Age of Reason, Age of Enlightenment.

This movement was represented by outstanding philosophers, scientists, writers, statesmen and public figures from different countries. Among the educators were aristocrats, nobles, priests, lawyers, teachers, merchants and industrialists. They could hold different, sometimes opposing views on certain problems, belong to different religions or deny the existence of God, be staunch republicans or supporters of light restrictions on the monarchy. But they were all united by a commonality of goals and ideals, a belief in the possibility of creating a just society through peaceful, non-violent means. "Enlightenment of minds", the purpose of which is to open people's eyes to the rational principles of organizing society, to advance their world and themselves - this is the essence of Enlightenment and main meaning activities of educators.

Question 8. Technological progress and the Great Industrial Revolution in Europe in the 17th century.

Geographical discoveries continue. Cities, factories, factories are built, new machines appear, steam engine, conveyor and other technical innovations. Ships, new weapons, battle tactics.

The industrial revolution is a consequence of scientific and technological progress and social development of European countries, especially England.

In historiography, the industrial revolution is understood as a set of scientific, technical, economic, social and political shifts or profound changes that marked the transition from the manufacturing stage of production to the factory system of capitalist or socialist production, based on a system of machines or machine technology. As a result of the industrial revolution, the market capitalist economy received its technical basis. This society, based on private property and a market economy and capitalist production, was finally established in those countries where this revolution took place. Speaking in Marxist language, this formation received a base and found its feet. The industrial revolution took its most clearly classical form in England, from which everyone starts as a standard of measurement. This was due to the fact that in England the conditions necessary for this were ripe earlier.

Scientific and technical conditions were covered in the last lecture. It is the invention of working machines that gave rise to the Industrial Revolution from the 1760s.

And the socio-economic conditions are: the development of processes of initial accumulation of capital, which mean the formation of two poles. Upper pole: capital that requires its use, otherwise it will be a “chest of a stingy knight.” And below are huge masses of cheap means of production and people selling their hands, their labor.

This process of primitive accumulation was most profound in England, as a result of the de-peasantization of the countryside, enclosure and the formation of a land market, which was a consequence of two revolutions: the Great and Glorious Revolution of the 17th century.

In terms of the degree of transformation of society that European countries underwent, contemporaries very often compare this coup with a deep political revolution. Therefore, in historiography, in addition to the term industrial revolution, the term industrial revolution is often used.

For the reasons stated above, the industrial revolution began in England in the 60s.

1769 Arkwright invents the water engine and creates the first factory, employing several hundred people. And after 20 years in England, where the population is about 6 million people, i.e. by the end of the 1780s of the 18th century, 143 similar spinning mills were operating. Each of them is attended by 700-800 or more people. This is all the industrial proletariat, mostly women and children for now.

The invention of the loom leads to the development of not only the cotton spinning industry, but also the cotton weaving industry. There is technological progress, advances in chemical industry, because fabrics need to be bleached, dyed, etc.

The invention of Watt's double-action steam engine, the final version, which gave England an 11% increase by the end of the 18th century gross product, leads to an increase in the demand for metal, since machine tools and steam engines are made from metal. Accordingly, technical progress covers the metallurgical, ferrous, non-ferrous industries, etc.

As a result, a revolution in transport began at the beginning of the 19th century. Invention of steam transport on wheels, steamboat. The beginning of this revolution leads to the emergence of industrial centers in the country, in England, and then in other countries, where these factories are concentrated, and the working population is growing, which works 14-16 hours in these factories from morning to night. The market for agricultural products is growing. Therefore, around these centers, such as Birmingham and Manchester in England, areas of intensive Agriculture, gardening, meat and dairy farming that supply these growing cities.

The progress of industry in England, the demand throughout the world for these machines and products of the factory industry lead to the fact that already in the first third of the 19th century England became the “workshop of the world”, supplying goods to the whole of Europe and the whole world.

The growth of economic power contributes to the growth of political and military power England. All this leads to rapid changes in demographics and economic geography the same England.

Demographics: the population of the British Isles in 1756 was 5 million 590 thousand people. In 100 years – already about 16 million people! Life became better, and the process began. And this despite the fact that England is constantly at war, and a huge flow of migrants from the British Isles goes anywhere for a better life: to Australia, the USA, Canada.

Geographical changes: from practically nothing, from places that only people know

Question 9. USA education.

USA education.

By the end of the 18th century, the United States consisted of 13 independent colonies: the northern colonies had developed production, the southern colonies had plantation production with slave labor. The cause of the War of Independence was the policy of plundering the colonies by England. In 1774, the First Continental Congress met in Philadelphia and approved the petition for independence. In response, England launched military operations, but was defeated by the troops of George Washington. As a result, England was forced to recognize the independence of the United States.

1781 - Articles of Confederation, establishing a union of thirteen states.

1787 - adoption of the US Constitution (still in force).

1791 - Bill of Rights - the first 10 amendments to the Constitution containing human rights and freedoms.

Question 10. French Revolution of the 17th century.

Great bourgeois revolution (1789 - 1799)

Stages of the revolution:

1) July 14, 1789 - storming of the Bastille. The uprising spreads throughout France, the king is arrested.

3) Coup d'etat And Jacobin dictatorship 1793: execution of the king and queen. Massacres nobles A guillotine is a special machine for cutting off heads. Jacobins - Danton, Robespierre, Marat, Desmoulins - leaders of the Jacobins who initiated the terrible terror. In 7 months of 1793, 4 million people were executed in Paris! All Jacobin leaders were subsequently executed.

4) Coup of 9 Thermidor. Setting Directory mode. A new constitution has been adopted in France. The country is ruled instead of parliament by the Council of Five Hundred. The war continues.

5) The coup of 18 Brumaire (November 9, 1799) and the rise to power of Napoleon Bonaparte. Napoleon and his guards dispersed the Council of Five Hundred and headed the provisional government. Three consuls acted as president - Napoleon Bonaparte, Roger Ducos and Sieyès. Soon two other consuls transferred emergency powers to Napoleon. Napoleon soon became emperor, but he retained parliament, the constitution and all the democratic achievements of the revolution.

MAIN LITERATURE

1. Fortunatov V.V. "Story". Tutorial. Third generation standard. For bachelors and specialists. SPb., PETER, 2014. 464 p. 1 copy

2. Samygin P.S., Samygin S.I., Shevelev V.N. "Story". Tutorial. M., NIC INFRA-M, 2013. 528 p. 1 copy

3. Artemov V.V., Lubchenkov Yu.N. "History of the Fatherland from ancient times to the present day." Textbook for students of secondary vocational educational institutions. M., Publishing house “Mastership”, 2012. 360 p. 19 copies

ADDITIONAL LITERATURE

1. Apalkov V.S., Minyaeva I.M. "The history of homeland". Tutorial. 2nd edition. M., Alpha-M; SIC INFRA-M, 2012. 544 p. 1 copy

2. Kuznetsov I.N. “History of the Fatherland in tests - preparing for the Unified State Exam.” Rostov-on-Don, Phoenix, 2012. 224 p. 2 copies

3. Moryakov V.I., Fedorov V.A., Shchetinov Yu.A. "Fundamentals of the course of Russian history." Textbook.

M., TK Welby, Prospekt Publishing House, 2013. 464 p. 1 copy

4. Klyuchevsky V.O. " Full course Russian history in one book." M., AST; Astrel-SPb., 2012. 510 p. 6 copies

5. Soloviev S.M. "History of Russia from ancient times." M., Eksmo, 2011. 1024 p. 8 copies

6. Vasiliev L.S. "General history". Textbook in 6 volumes. M., Higher School, 2010. Volume 1. 448 p. Volume 3. 606 p. 1 copy

7. Boguslavsky V.V. "Rulers of Russia: biographical dictionary." M., OLMA PRESS Grand Cover, 2012. 912 p. 2 copies

The power of the Ottoman Empire reached its apogee in the mid-16th century. The period of the reign of Suleiman I the Magnificent (1520–1566) is considered the Golden Age of the Ottoman Empire. Suleiman I surrounded himself with many capable dignitaries. Most of them were recruited through the devşirme system or captured during army campaigns and pirate raids, and by 1566, when Suleiman I died, these “new Turks” or “new Ottomans” already firmly held power over the entire empire. They formed the backbone of the administrative authorities, while the highest Muslim institutions were headed by indigenous Turks. Theologians and jurists were recruited from among them, whose duties included interpreting laws and performing judicial functions.

In 1521, the Ottoman army crossed the Danube and captured Belgrade. This victory, which Mehmed II could not achieve at one time, opened the way for the Ottomans to the plains of Hungary and the upper Danube basin. In 1526 Suleiman took Budapest and occupied all of Hungary. In 1529 the Sultan began the siege of Vienna, but was unable to capture the city before the onset of winter. Nevertheless, the vast territory from Istanbul to Vienna and from the Black Sea to the Adriatic Sea formed the European part of the Ottoman Empire, and Suleiman during his reign carried out seven military campaigns on the western borders of the power.

Suleiman led fighting and in the east. The borders of his empire with Persia were not defined, and vassal rulers in the border areas changed their masters depending on whose side was powerful and with whom it was more profitable to enter into an alliance. In 1534, Suleiman took Tabriz and then Baghdad, incorporating Iraq into the Ottoman Empire; in 1548 he regained Tabriz. The Sultan spent the entire year 1549 in pursuit of the Persian Shah Tahmasp I, trying to fight him. While Suleiman was in Europe in 1553, Persian troops invaded Asia Minor and captured Erzurum. Having expelled the Persians and devoted most of 1554 to the conquest of the lands east of the Euphrates, Suleiman, according to an official peace treaty concluded with the Shah, received a port in the Persian Gulf at his disposal. Squadrons of the naval forces of the Ottoman Empire operated in the waters of the Arabian Peninsula, in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Suez.

From the very beginning of his reign, Suleiman paid great attention to strengthening the naval power of the state in order to maintain Ottoman superiority in the Mediterranean. In 1522 his second campaign was directed against Fr. Rhodes, located 19 km from the southwestern coast of Asia Minor. After the capture of the island and the eviction of the Johannites who owned it to Malta, the Aegean Sea and the entire coast of Asia Minor became Ottoman possessions. Soon, the French king Francis I turned to the Sultan for military assistance in the Mediterranean and with a request to move against Hungary in order to stop the advance of the troops of Emperor Charles V, who were advancing on Francis in Italy. The most famous of Suleiman's naval commanders, Hayraddin Barbarossa, the supreme ruler of Algeria and North Africa, devastated the coasts of Spain and Italy. Nevertheless, Suleiman's admirals were unable to capture Malta in 1565.

Suleiman died in 1566 in Szigetvár during a campaign in Hungary. The body of the last of the great Ottoman sultans was transferred to Istanbul and buried in a mausoleum in the courtyard of the mosque.

Under the new Sultan Selim II, the Ottomans began to lose their position at sea. In 1571, the united Christian fleet met the Turkish in the battle of Lepanto and defeated it. During the winter of 1571–1572, the shipyards in Gelibolu and Istanbul worked tirelessly, and by the spring of 1572, thanks to the construction of new warships, the European naval victory was nullified. In 1573 they managed to defeat the Venetians, and the island of Cyprus was annexed to the empire. Despite this, the defeat at Lepanto foreshadowed the coming decline of Ottoman power in the Mediterranean.

Decline of the Empire.

After Selim II, most of the sultans of the Ottoman Empire were weak rulers. Murad III, son of Selim, reigned from 1574 to 1595. His tenure on the throne was accompanied by unrest.

After the death of Murad III, 20 of his sons remained. Of these, Mehmed III ascended the throne, strangling 19 of his brothers. His son Ahmed I, who succeeded him in 1603, tried to reform the system of power and get rid of corruption. He moved away from the cruel tradition and did not kill his brother Mustafa. And although this, of course, was a manifestation of humanism, from that time all the brothers of the sultans and their closest relatives from the Ottoman dynasty began to be kept in captivity in a special part of the palace, where they spent their lives until the death of the reigning monarch. Then the eldest of them was proclaimed his successor. Thus, after Ahmed I, few who reigned in the 17th and 18th centuries. Sultanov had a sufficient level of intellectual development or political experience to rule such a huge empire. As a result, the unity of the state and the central power itself began to quickly weaken.

Mustafa I, brother of Ahmed I, was mentally ill and reigned for only one year. Osman II, the son of Ahmed I, was proclaimed the new sultan in 1618. Being an enlightened monarch, Osman II tried to transform state structures, but was killed by his opponents in 1622. For some time, the throne again went to Mustafa I, but already in 1623 Osman’s brother Murad ascended the throne IV, who led the country until 1640. His reign was dynamic and reminiscent of Selim I. Having come of age in 1623, Murad spent the next eight years tirelessly trying to restore and reform the Ottoman Empire. In an effort to improve the health of government structures, he executed 10 thousand officials. Murad personally stood at the head of his armies during the eastern campaigns, prohibited the consumption of coffee, tobacco and alcoholic beverages, but he himself showed a weakness for alcohol, which led the young ruler to death at the age of only 28 years.

Murad's successor, his mentally ill brother Ibrahim, managed to significantly destroy the state he inherited before he was deposed in 1648. The conspirators placed Ibrahim's six-year-old son Mehmed IV on the throne and actually led the country until 1656, when the Sultan's mother achieved the appointment of grand vizier with unlimited powers talented Mehmed Köprülü. He held this position until 1661, when his son Fazil Ahmed Köprülü became vizier.

The Ottoman Empire still managed to overcome the period of chaos, extortion and crisis of state power. Europe was torn apart by religious wars and the Thirty Years' War, and Poland and Russia were in turmoil. This gave both Köprül the opportunity, after a purge of the administration, during which 30 thousand officials were executed, to capture the island of Crete in 1669, and Podolia and other regions of Ukraine in 1676. After the death of Ahmed Köprülü, his place was taken by a mediocre and corrupt palace favorite. In 1683, the Ottomans besieged Vienna, but were defeated by the Poles and their allies led by Jan Sobieski.