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Presentation on the topic of accumulation of scientific knowledge. Auction lesson "Scientific knowledge" presentation for a social studies lesson (grade 10) on the topic. Smart grid theory

Postgraduate student of the Department of Educational Methodology, SSU named after. N.G. Chernyshevsky,

Master (Teacher Education)

E.V. Akchurina


  • A method is a set of ways by which a goal is achieved.

  • In modern science, these various scientific methods are distinguished on special grounds. And first of all, those that are used at different levels are distinguished scientific research– empirical and theoretical. Thus, at the initial empirical level, research usually distinguishes a whole group of methods.

  • observation;
  • experiment;
  • description;
  • measurement.

  • Purposeful and organized perception of the external world, providing primary material for scientific research. Observation can be simple and complex, direct and indirect, intertwined with experiment. Observation presupposes the possibility of using devices and instruments, thus compensating for the natural limitations of human senses.

  • The study of any phenomena by actively influencing them by creating new conditions that correspond to the goals of the study. With the development of science and technology, the scope of experimentation is steadily expanding.

  • Recording observational or experimental data using certain notation systems. The description is made both by ordinary language and by special means that make up the language of science (symbols, matrices, graphs, etc.).

  • Determination of the main characteristics of objects using appropriate measuring instruments. Most often this is the determination of weight, length, coordinates, speed, etc. material objects. Ultimately, measurement comes down to comparing the measured quantity with some homogeneous quantity accepted as a unit or standard.

  • Using empirical methods of scientific research, scientists accumulate primary empirical material, which requires further processing and generalization, which is carried out at the theoretical level of analysis.
  • Here we should highlight a whole group of the most important theoretical research methods.

  • formalization;
  • axiomatization;
  • hypothetico-deductive method.

  • Mapping the results of thinking into precise concepts or statements. It is usually carried out through the fact that with the objects, phenomena, processes of a given area of ​​reality being studied, certain material structures are compared in a certain way, which have a relatively stable character and therefore allow one to identify and record the essential and natural aspects of the objects under consideration.

  • Building theories based on certain axioms (statements that do not require proof of their truth). This method has a long history, dating back to Ancient Greece. In modern conditions, axiomatization is carried out through a number of sequential logical operations.

  • Putting forward certain statements as hypotheses and testing these hypotheses with facts. Evaluation of the initial hypothesis based on such a procedure is quite complex and multi-stage in nature, since only a long process of testing the hypothesis can lead to its justified acceptance and justified rejection or refutation.

  • Along with empirical and theoretical methods of science, science of science also distinguishes general, general scientific and specific scientific methods. Among them, universal methods are of particular interest.

  • analysis and synthesis;
  • induction and deduction;
  • abstraction;
  • generalization;
  • analogy;
  • modeling;
  • classification.

  • The processes of mental or actual decomposition of a whole into its component parts and the reunification of the whole from its parts. This method plays a very important role in the cognitive process and is carried out at all its stages. In mental operations, analysis and synthesis act as logical tricks thinking, accomplished with the help of abstract concepts and closely related to a number of mental operations: abstraction, generalization, etc.

  • Movement from the particular to the general, from individual facts to general provisions(induction) or, on the contrary, movement from the general to the particular, from one statement to another based on the laws of logic (deduction).

  • Abstraction from certain properties and relationships of the phenomenon being studied that are unimportant in a given context. The process of abstraction is a necessary condition for the formation of a wide variety of concepts. Moreover, all cognition in general is associated with processes of abstraction. Without them, revealing the essence and logical penetration into the depths of the subject are impossible.

  • The logical process of transition from individual to general, from less general to more general knowledge. Obtaining generalized knowledge means a deeper reflection of reality, penetration into its essence.

  • A method of cognition with the help of which the similarity of non-identical objects is discovered in some significant aspects and relationships.

  • Reproduction of the characteristics of an object on another object specially created for its study (model). The need for modeling arises when studying the object itself is impossible, difficult, expensive, takes too long, etc. There must be a certain similarity between the model and the object of interest to the researcher.

  • Dividing all the subjects being studied into some groups in accordance with the characteristics that are significant for this study. The classification is intended for permanent use in any science or field practical activities. Usually, as the basis for division in the classification, characteristics that are essential for these items and objects are chosen.

  • In the history of natural science, the problem of methods of scientific knowledge arises already in ancient times, but is especially acute in modern times, during the period of searching for optimal methods of scientific knowledge.


  • promote awareness of the forms and methods of scientific knowledge;
  • continue acquaintance with characteristics of cognitive activity;
  • realize complex search, systematization And interpretation information on a specific topic from original non-adapted texts (philosophical, scientific, legal, political, journalistic);
  • contribute to the development of students' civic position.

  • Know: the essence and features of scientific knowledge, get acquainted with the main features of the methodology of scientific thinking, methods of scientific knowledge.
  • Be able to: carry out a comprehensive search, systematize social information on the topic, compare, analyze, and draw conclusions.

  • scientific theory;
  • empirical law;
  • hypothesis;
  • scientific experiment;
  • modeling;
  • scientific revolution;
  • differentiation;
  • integration.

Learning new material

  • Main features of the methodology of scientific thinking.
  • Differentiation and integration of scientific knowledge.

Remember. How are the sensual and rational connected in the cognitive activity of people? What knowledge is considered true? How is the objectivity of truth expressed? What laws of the development of nature, discovered by scientists, did you become acquainted with in physics and biology lessons?


Features of scientific knowledge

Find the extra statement

  • “Don’t dig a hole for someone else, you’ll end up in it yourself.”
  • “Aliens from other planets live among us”
  • “Each person has a certain set of genes - carriers of heredity”
  • “Every person strives for material wealth”
  • "Every person has their own aura"

Read the paragraph “Features of scientific knowledge” on page 248 and write down the features


Features of scientific knowledge

  • Receipt new for humanity knowledge.
  • Objectivity acquired knowledge
  • Usage special methods cognitive activity.
  • Reproducibility the result obtained under the same conditions, verifiability knowledge.
  • Rationality (consistency, evidence, consistency).
  • Development of the conceptual apparatus ( terminology ).
  • Versatility .

How did it turn out in your notebooks? Check it out!


Weight substances, entered into chemical reaction, is equal mass substances, formed as a result of the reaction

Scientific knowledge - a type of cognitive activity aimed at obtaining objective knowledge about nature, society and thinking.

Scientific knowledge - knowledge aimed at the discovery of objective laws based on a generalization of real facts in their interrelation.


Type of cognitive activity aimed at developing objective, systematically organized and substantiated knowledge about nature, man and society.

“Science as knowledge exists in itself - “knowledge for the sake of knowledge” - is this a myth or reality?


Two levels of scientific knowledge

Empirical knowledge – process of accumulation and fixation experienced data; the study of real-life, sensory-perceptible objects.

Theoretical knowledge -

the main task - description of objects and phenomena, accumulation of knowledge.

the process of identifying laws and creating scientific theories; essential indirect cognition; deals with ideal objects.

the main task –

Form of knowledge gained:

explanation of the phenomena being studied.

  • Scientific fact
  • Empirical law

Form of knowledge gained:

  • Hypothesis
  • Law
  • Theory

Methods of empirical knowledge

Methods of theoretical knowledge

Observation – purposeful the study of individual objects and phenomena, during which knowledge is obtained about the external properties and signs of the object being studied

Hypothesis– a scientific assumption that needs to be verified.

Measurement- comparison of objects according to any general properties and the parties.

Theory– a holistic display of natural and significant connections of a certain area of ​​reality

Description– recording information about objects using language tools.

Modeling– reproduction of the characteristics of an object on another object (model), specially created for their study.

Experiment– observation in specially created and controlled conditions

Analysis -

Synthesis –

Induction –

Deduction –

Analogy -




DIFFERENTIATION AND INTEGRATION OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE

  • DIFFERENTIATION(from lat. differentia - difference) means division, dismemberment of a whole into parts, forms, etc.
  • INTEGRATION(from lat. integration - recovery) captures the reverse process - rapprochement and connection various parts, processes, phenomena.

According to experts, the integration of scientific knowledge is hampered by lack of unifying scientific ideas; the rapid growth of specialized scientific knowledge, which does not allow scientists to become specialists in a number of scientific disciplines (in other words, the age of encyclopedists is irrevocably over).


HOW SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTIONS OCCUR

A striking example of such a revolution is the change in the scientific picture of the world that took place at the beginning of the 20th century The research of A. Einstein, M. Planck and other outstanding scientists radically changed ideas about space, time, and matter. And yet, having significantly enriched them, the physics of the last century did not abolish previous ideas, but pointed to the area within which they are valid.

Albert Einstein, (03/14/1879 – 04/18/1955) - great physicist; one of the founders of modern physical theory; creator of the Special and General Theories of Relativity

Max Planck (1858-1947) (Max Karl Ernest Ludwig) - German physicist, one of the founders of quantum theory, foreign corresponding member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (1913) and honorary member of the USSR Academy of Sciences (1926).


  • far from professional scientific activity, but constantly uses the fruits of science, embodied in the mass of modern things (everyday comfort);
  • The authority of science, methodology (principles, approaches) of scientific thinking is increasingly strengthened;
  • At the same time, there are also supporters of a non-scientific picture of the world: they are characterized by an orientation towards practical benefits, an interest in the mysterious and miraculous.

  • What are the main differences between scientific knowledge and everyday knowledge?
  • What characterizes the empirical level? scientific knowledge?
  • What is inherent in the theoretical level of science?
  • Correlate the levels and methods of scientific knowledge.
  • What distinguishes an experiment from an observation?
  • What is the role of hypothesis in scientific knowledge?
  • Give examples of scientific modeling.
  • What is the differentiation of scientific knowledge? What are its reasons?
  • What makes it difficult to integrate scientific knowledge in modern conditions?
  • How does the scientific revolution develop?

  • “ Everyday observations convince us that all bodies are attracted to the Earth. But bodies are attracted not only to the Earth, but also to each other. This can be verified by the following experiment. (The following is a description of the experiment.)
  • In 1667, analyzing materials from astronomical observations, Newton applied the laws of dynamics he formulated to the movement of the Moon. He knew that the Moon revolves around the Earth in an almost circular orbit. But movement in a circular orbit is possible only when some force acts on the body, imparting centripetal acceleration to it... Newton suggested that this force is the force of mutual attraction between the Moon and the Earth. Having made the necessary calculations, he came to the conclusion that the force of mutual attraction between the Moon and the Earth can be calculated using the formula (the formula is given)...
  • Newton did not stop there, but suggested that using the formula he obtained, it was possible to calculate the force of attraction of any bodies if their sizes are small compared to the distance between them. Therefore, the law he discovered was called the law of universal gravitation...
  • Two bodies (considered as material points) are attracted to each other along the straight line connecting them, with forces directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.”

C1. Give three examples each of non-scientific and scientific forms of knowledge.

C2. Among the reasons that determine the relative nature of the truths discovered in knowledge, the limitations of human cognitive capabilities are most often cited: not everything is accessible to our perception; it has its own boundaries and rational knowledge.

What else gives our conclusions and judgments about the world a relative character? List three such “limiters.”

C3. Name three forms of rational knowledge.


  • What did you learn?
  • How?
  • What have you learned?
  • What difficulties did you experience?
  • Was the lesson interesting?




Criteria for scientific knowledge: 1. Objectivity, reliability. Scientific knowledge must correspond to real processes, that is, be true. 2. Evidence, validity. Knowledge that is the result of scientific knowledge must be scientifically proven and justified. Empirical facts and logical arguments can serve as justification.


3. Experienced testability and reproducibility of results. 4. Expression in concepts. Scientific knowledge must be expressed in a system of specific concepts developed by this science. 5. Systematicity. Scientific knowledge must be consistent with a certain concept established in science or serve as the basis for the formation of a new concept. 6. The ability to develop, that is, the potential of knowledge to generate new knowledge.


Question 2. Trends in the development of modern scientific knowledge 1. Deep differentiation and integration of scientific knowledge. Differentiation is the process of formation of new sciences, the separation of specific subjects of scientific research from traditional sciences. Integration is the process of combining sciences into a system, the formation of synthetic sciences that provide a comprehensive study of the object of science.


2. Mathematization modern science. The philosophical basis of mathematization is the increasing degree of abstraction of scientific knowledge, the desire to analyze quantitative characteristics. 3. Acceleration of the development of scientific knowledge: in ten years the volume of scientific information doubles, the number of people employed in science increases. 4. The structure of scientific knowledge changes qualitatively: philosophical theory (metatheory) and methodology, the logic of science acquires primary importance in scientific knowledge.






Question 4. Methods and forms of scientific knowledge Method (Greek methodos - path, research) - a way, a set of rules, techniques for obtaining new knowledge. Special (private) methods are methods that are used in special sciences (spectral analysis, statistical method, method of labeled atoms, etc.). General scientific methods are methods that are used in all sciences. Universal (universal) methodological principles are a set of requirements, the fulfillment of which is necessary for conducting scientific research.


Methods of scientific knowledge The methodology of science examines general scientific methods that are used at the empirical and theoretical levels of research. Methods of the empirical level of knowledge - observation and experiment. Methods of the theoretical level of research - analysis, synthesis, generalization, induction, - analysis, synthesis, generalization, induction, deduction, analogy, modeling, mathematical methods, system method, etc.


Philosophical (universal) principles of scientific research 1. The principle of objectivity. 2. The principle of development. 3. The principle of universal connection (systematicity). 4. The principle of internal contradiction. 5. The principle of the relationship between quantitative and qualitative characteristics. 6. The principle of concreteness of truth.


Forms of the empirical level of scientific knowledge Scientific fact (lat. faktum - accomplished, done) is the empirical basis of science. Fact – aspects of reality perceived by a person and recorded in some form. A phenomenon becomes a scientific fact if it is recorded, that is, the content of this phenomenon and the conditions (time, place) of its existence are indicated.


Forms of the theoretical level of scientific knowledge A scientific problem (Greek problema - task, task) is a form of knowledge, the content of which is what has not yet been known by man, but what needs to be known. This is knowledge about ignorance, a question that arose in the course of cognition and requires an answer.


A hypothesis is a scientific assumption put forward on the basis of accumulated scientific facts and explains new facts that do not fit into the old theory. Hypothetical knowledge is probabilistic in nature and requires verification and justification. A scientific theory is a well-founded, logically consistent system of scientific knowledge that explains the nature of the functioning and development of an object.

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“Material and spiritual culture” - Translated from Latin, the term “culture” means “cultivation”, “processing”. Lathe and a pictorial painting, for example, serve different purposes. Culture is constantly changing, dynamic, and evolving. Man in the world of culture. Western culture. Spiritual. Material. Eastern culture. Culture. What is culture? The role of culture in our life. Without culture, the life of neither man nor society is possible.

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“Schopenhauer” - Fluent in German. The philosopher wrote nine works. He gravitated toward German romanticism. Analysis of the human will. Arthur Schopenhauer. The main philosophical work. Philosopher of pessimism. He neglected basic goods. Mention of. Schopenhauer was a misogynist.

1) Not every person can become a subject of scientific knowledge, but only one who has undergone special specialized training necessary for research activities.

2) Scientific knowledge is specifically focused on the discovery of laws and phenomena hitherto unknown. The knowledge obtained in this way is substantiated, systematically organized, and expressed using an artificial language.

3) In scientific knowledge, a specialized language is used - compared to the language of everyday communication, it is characterized by a higher degree of unambiguity of words and expressions, greater compactness, accuracy and consistency of rules.

Specificity of scientific knowledge

4) Scientific knowledge involves the use of specialized tools: special material means (reagents, experimental installations, control devices, etc.), information processing and communication means, vehicles, power plants, etc.

5) Scientific knowledge is regulated by a certain set of methods and other types of normative knowledge (principles, ideals, norms, etc.).

6) Immediate purpose and highest value scientific knowledge is objective truth.

7) Scientific knowledge is aimed at predicting future events, states and properties of the objects under study. Science strives to create a foundation of knowledge for future forms of practical exploration of the world.

Structure of scientific knowledge

Three main levels:

Empirical

Theoretical Metatheoretical

Specifics of empirical knowledge

Empirical research is fundamentally aimed at studying phenomena and the connections between them.

Empirical research is based on direct practical interaction between the researcher and the object being studied. The means of empirical research include means of observation, measurement and experiment (instruments, experimental installations, special equipment and premises, etc.).

Specifics of theoretical knowledge

At the level of theoretical knowledge, the essential connections of an object in its pure form are isolated. The essence of an object is the interaction of a number of laws to which this object is subject.

direct practical interaction with objects; the object is studied indirectly. This is achieved by presenting the subject of research in the form of a system of abstract ideal objects, in which the phenomena and processes of interest to the researcher are presented in their pure form by exclusion real conditions their existence (for example, a material point in mechanics, an absolutely solid body in physics, an ideal gas in thermodynamics, almost all mathematical objects).

Specifics of metatheoretical knowledge

All the diversity of knowledge is united into integrity. This is ensured not only by the relationship between the metatheoretical foundations of science (the scientific picture of the world, the ideals and norms of scientific research, the philosophical foundations of science). The metatheoretical foundations of science act as a system-forming block of scientific knowledge.

Functions of metatheoretical foundations of science:

Determining a scientific search strategy for a specific historical era taking into account the dominant type of scientific rationality;

Systematization of existing scientific knowledge;

Ensuring the inclusion of scientific knowledge in the culture of the relevant historical era.

Forms of empirical knowledge

Observation data- reflect the very presence of the objects under study, their properties, types of relationships with other objects in

providing for the statement of reliable, objective information. The transition from observational data to empirical fact involves the following operations:

Finding stable content in observation data;

The need to interpret the stable content revealed in observations.

Forms of theoretical knowledge

A problem is a form of theoretical knowledge, the content of which is a contradictory situation in the field of scientific knowledge that requires a solution.

A hypothesis is a form of theoretical knowledge that contains a scientific assumption about the essential characteristics and deep necessary connections of the phenomena and processes being studied.

Theory is a form of scientific knowledge that contains generalizing abstract constructs and a set of concepts and laws that reproduce an object in the form of a certain structured set of idealized objects and their relationships.

Forms of metatheoretical knowledge

Scientific picture of the world– a form of scientific knowledge that expresses the features of the systemic organization of the reality under study. It is formed as a result of the synthesis of knowledge obtained in various sciences, and contains general ideas about the world developed at the corresponding stages of the development of science.

Ideals and norms of scientific research . They express the value and goal orientations of science, answering the questions: why are certain cognitive actions needed, what type of knowledge should be obtained as a result, in what way to obtain this knowledge.

Philosophical foundations of science. Include philosophical ideas and principles that justify both the ideals and norms of science and meaningful representations of the scientific picture of the world, and also ensure the inclusion of scientific knowledge in culture. It's all about performance

O general premises and general orientation

cognitive processes.

The concept of the method of scientific knowledge

A method is a set of various techniques, operations and means of practical and theoretical mastery of reality.

The scientific method has the following characteristics:

1) clarity or accessibility;

2) lack of spontaneity in application;

4) fruitfulness or the ability to achieve not only the intended, but also no less significant side results;

5) reliability or the ability to provide the desired result with a high degree of reliability;

6) efficiency or the ability to produce results with the least amount of money and time.