By the middle of the 11th century. The Kipchak tribes, coming from Central Asia, conquered all the steppe spaces from the Yaik (Ural River) to the Danube, including the north of Crimea and the North Caucasus.

Individual clans, or “tribes,” of the Kipchaks united into powerful tribal unions, the centers of which became primitive wintering cities. The khans who headed such associations could raise tens of thousands of warriors on a campaign, welded together by tribal discipline and representing terrible threat for neighboring agricultural peoples. The Russian name of the Kipchaks - “Polovtsy” - is believed to have come from the ancient Russian word “polova” - straw, because the hair of these nomads was light, straw-colored.

The first appearance of the Polovtsians in Rus'

In 1061, the Polovtsians first attacked Russian lands and defeated the army of the Pereyaslavl prince Vsevolod Yaroslavich. From that time on, for more than a century and a half, they continuously threatened the borders of Rus'. This struggle, unprecedented in its scale, duration and ferocity, occupied an entire period of Russian history. It unfolded along the entire border of forest and steppe - from Ryazan to the foothills of the Carpathians.

Cumans

After spending the winter near the sea coasts (in the Azov region), the Polovtsians began to migrate north in the spring and appeared in the forest-steppe regions in May. They attacked more often in the fall to profit from the fruits of the harvest, but the Polovtsian leaders, trying to take the farmers by surprise, constantly changed tactics, and a raid could be expected at any time of the year, in any principality of the steppe borderland. It was very difficult to repel the attacks of their flying detachments: they appeared and disappeared suddenly, before the princely squads or militias of the nearest cities were in place. Usually the Polovtsians did not besiege fortresses and preferred to plunder villages, but even the troops of an entire principality often found themselves powerless before the large hordes of these nomads.

Polovtsian horseman of the 12th century.

Until the 90s. XI century The chronicles report almost nothing about the Polovtsians. However, judging by the memories of Vladimir Monomakh about his youth, given in his “Teachings”, then throughout the 70s and 80s. XI century a “small war” continued on the border: endless raids, pursuits and skirmishes, sometimes with very large forces of nomads.

Cuman offensive

In the early 90s. XI century The Polovtsians, who roamed along both banks of the Dnieper, united for a new attack on Rus'. In 1092, “the army was great from the Polovtsians and from everywhere.” The nomads captured three cities - Pesochen, Perevoloka and Priluk, and destroyed many villages on both banks of the Dnieper. The chronicler is eloquently silent about whether any resistance was given to the steppe inhabitants.

The next year, the new Kiev prince Svyatopolk Izyaslavich recklessly ordered the arrest of the Polovtsian ambassadors, which gave rise to a new invasion. The Russian army, which came out to meet the Polovtsians, was defeated at Trepol. During the retreat, crossing in a hurry across the Stugna River, which had swollen from the rains, many Russian soldiers drowned, including the Pereyaslavl prince Rostislav Vsevolodovich. Svyatopolk fled to Kyiv, and enormous forces The Polovtsians besieged the city of the Torci, who had settled since the 50s. XI century along the Rosi River, - Torchesk. The Kiev prince, having gathered a new army, tried to help the Torques, but was again defeated, suffering even greater losses. Torchesk defended itself heroically, but in the end the city's water supplies ran out, it was taken by the steppe inhabitants and burned.

Its entire population was driven into slavery. The Polovtsians again ravaged the outskirts of Kyiv, capturing thousands of prisoners, but they apparently failed to plunder the left bank of the Dnieper; he was protected by Vladimir Monomakh, who reigned in Chernigov.

In 1094, Svyatopolk, not having the strength to fight the enemy and hoping to get at least a temporary respite, tried to make peace with the Polovtsians by marrying the daughter of Khan Tugorkan - the one whose name the creators of epics over the centuries changed into “Snake Tugarin” or “Tugarin Zmeevich” " In the same year, Oleg Svyatoslavich from the family of Chernigov princes, with the help of the Polovtsians, expelled Monomakh from Chernigov to Pereyaslavl, giving the surroundings of his native city to the allies for plunder.

In the winter of 1095, near Pereyaslavl, the warriors of Vladimir Monomakh destroyed the detachments of two Polovtsian khans, and in February, the troops of the Pereyaslav and Kyiv princes, who have since become permanent allies, made their first trip to the steppe. Chernigov Prince Oleg avoided joint action and preferred to make peace with the enemies of Rus'.

In the summer the war resumed. The Polovtsians besieged the town of Yuryev on the Rosi River for a long time and forced the inhabitants to flee from it. The city was burned. Monomakh on east coast successfully defended itself, winning several victories, but there was clearly not enough strength. The Polovtsians struck in the most unexpected places, and the Chernigov prince established a very special relationship with them, hoping to strengthen his own independence and protect his subjects by ruining his neighbors.

In 1096, Svyatopolk and Vladimir, completely enraged by Oleg’s treacherous behavior and his “majestic” (i.e., proud) answers, drove him out of Chernigov and besieged him in Starodub, but at that time large forces of the steppe inhabitants began an offensive on both banks of the Dnieper and immediately broke through to the capitals of the principalities. Khan Bonyak, who led the Azov Polovtsians, attacked Kyiv, and Kurya and Tugorkan besieged Pereyaslavl. The troops of the allied princes, having nevertheless forced Oleg to beg for mercy, set off in an accelerated march towards Kiev, but, not finding Bonyak there, who left, avoiding a collision, crossed the Dnieper at Zarub and on July 19, unexpectedly for the Polovtsians, appeared near Pereyaslavl. Without giving the enemy the opportunity to form up for battle, the Russian soldiers, fording the Trubezh River, struck the Polovtsians. They, without waiting for the fight, ran, dying under the swords of their pursuers. The defeat was complete. Among those killed was Svyatopolk’s father-in-law, Tugorkan.

But on these same days, the Polovtsians almost captured Kyiv: Bonyak, making sure that the troops of the Russian princes had gone to the left bank of the Dnieper, approached Kyiv a second time and at dawn tried to suddenly break into the city. For a long time later, the Polovtsians remembered how the annoyed Khan used a saber to cut the gate doors that had slammed shut in front of his very nose. This time the Polovtsy burned the prince's country residence and destroyed the Pechersky Monastery, the most important cultural center of the country. Svyatopolk and Vladimir, who urgently returned to the right bank, pursued Bonyak beyond Ros, all the way to the Southern Bug.

The nomads felt the power of the Russians. From this time on, Torci and other tribes, as well as individual Polovtsian clans, began to come to Monomakh to serve from the steppe. In such a situation, it was necessary to quickly unite the efforts of all Russian lands in the fight against the steppe nomads, as was the case under Vladimir Svyatoslavich and Yaroslav the Wise, but different times were coming - an era of inter-princely wars and political fragmentation. Lyubech Congress did not bring the princes to agreement in 1097; The Polovtsians also took part in the strife that began after him.

The unification of Russian princes to repel the Polovtsians

Only in 1101 did the princes of the southern Russian lands make peace with each other and the very next year “they decided to dare to attack the Polovtsy and go to their lands.” In the spring of 1103, Vladimir Monomakh came to Svyatopolk in Dolobsk and convinced him to set out on a campaign before the start of field work, when the Polovtsian horses, after wintering, had not yet gained strength and were not able to escape pursuit.

Vladimir Monomakh with princes

The united army of seven Russian princes in boats and on horses along the banks of the Dnieper moved to the rapids, from where they turned into the depths of the steppe. Having learned about the enemy’s movement, the Polovtsians sent a patrol - a “watchman”, but Russian intelligence “guarded” it and destroyed it, which allowed the Russian commanders to take full advantage of surprise. The Polovtsy, not ready for battle, fled at the sight of the Russians, despite their enormous numerical superiority. During the pursuit, twenty khans died under Russian swords. Huge booty fell into the hands of the victors: captives, herds, wagons, weapons. Many Russian prisoners were released. One of the two main Polovtsian groups was dealt a heavy blow.

But in 1107 Bonyak, who retained his strength, besieged Luben. The troops of other khans also came here. The Russian army, which this time included the Chernigovites, again managed to take the enemy by surprise. On August 12, suddenly appearing in front of the Polovtsian camp, the Russians rushed to the attack with a battle cry. Without trying to resist, the Polovtsians fled.

After such a defeat, the war moved to enemy territory - to the steppe, but first a split was introduced into its ranks. In winter, Vladimir Monomakh and Oleg Svyatoslavich went to Khan Aepa and, having made peace with him, became related, marrying their sons Yuri and Svyatoslav to his daughters. At the beginning of the winter of 1109, the governor of Monomakh, Dmitry Ivorovich, reached the Don itself and there captured “a thousand vezhas” - Polovtsian tents, which upset the Polovtsian military plans for the summer.

The second big campaign against the Polovtsians, the soul and organizer of which was again Vladimir Monomakh, was undertaken in the spring of 1111. The warriors set out in the snow. The infantry traveled to the Khorol River in sleighs. Then they walked to the southeast, “passing many rivers.” Four weeks later, the Russian army reached the Donets, donned armor and served a prayer service, after which it headed to the capital of the Polovtsians - Sharukan. Residents of the city did not dare to resist and came out with gifts. The Russian prisoners who were here were freed. A day later, the Polovtsian city of Sugrov was burned, after which the Russian army moved back, surrounded on all sides by strengthening Polovtsian detachments. On March 24, the Polovtsians blocked the way for the Russians, but were repulsed. The decisive battle took place in March on the banks of the small Salnitsa River. In a difficult battle, Monomakh’s regiments broke through the Polovtsian encirclement, allowing the Russian army to escape safely. Prisoners were captured. The Polovtsians did not pursue the Russians, admitting their failure. Vladimir Vsevolodovich attracted many clergy to participate in this campaign, the most significant of all those undertaken by him, giving it the character of a crusade, and achieved his goal. The glory of Monomakh's victory reached “even Rome.”

Old Russian fortress Lyubech from the times of the fight against the Polovtsians. Reconstruction by archaeologists.

However, the forces of the Polovtsy were still far from broken. In 1113, having learned about the death of Svyatopolk, Aepa and Bonyak immediately tried to test the strength of the Russian border by besieging the Vyr fortress, but, having received information about the approach of the Pereyaslavl army, they immediately fled - this was reflected in the psychological turning point in the war achieved during the campaign of 1111 G.

In 1113-1125, when Vladimir Monomakh reigned in Kyiv, the fight against the Cumans took place exclusively on their territory. The victorious campaigns that followed one after another finally broke the resistance of the nomads. In 1116, an army under the command of Yaropolk Vladimirovich - a constant participant in his father’s campaigns and a recognized military leader - defeated the nomadic camps of the Don Polovtsians, taking three of their cities and bringing many prisoners.

Polovtsian rule in the steppes collapsed. An uprising of tribes subject to the Kipchaks began. For two days and two nights, the Torquis and Pechenegs brutally fought with them near the Don, after which, having fought off, they retreated. In 1120, Yaropolk walked with his army far beyond the Don, but did not meet anyone. The steppes were empty. The Polovtsians migrated to the North Caucasus, Abkhazia, and the Caspian Sea.

The Russian plowman lived a quiet life in those years. The Russian border moved south. Therefore, the chronicler considered one of the main merits of Vladimir Monomakh to be the fact that he was “most feared by the filthy” - the pagan Polovtsians were afraid of him more than any of the Russian princes.

Resumption of Polovtsian raids

With the death of Monomakh, the Polovtsians perked up and immediately tried to capture the Torci and plunder the Russian border lands, but were defeated by Yaropolk. However, after the death of Yaropolk, the Monomashichi (descendants of Vladimir Monomakh) were removed from power by Vsevolod Olgovich, a friend of the Polovtsy, who knew how to keep them in his hands. Peace was concluded, and news of Polovtsian raids disappeared from the pages of chronicles for some time. Now the Polovtsians appeared as allies of Vsevolod. Ruining everything in their path, they went with him on campaigns against the Galician prince and even against the Poles.

After Vsevolod, the Kiev throne (reign) went to Izyaslav Mstislavich, the grandson of Monomakh, but now his uncle, Yuri Dolgoruky, began to actively play the “Polovtsian card”. Deciding to get Kyiv at any cost, this prince, the son-in-law of Khan Aepa, brought the Polovtsians to Kyiv five times, plundering even the environs of his native Pereyaslavl. In this he was actively helped by his son Gleb and brother-in-law Svyatoslav Olgovich, Aepa’s second son-in-law. In the end, Yuri Vladimirovich established himself in Kyiv, but he did not have to reign for long. Less than three years later, the people of Kiev poisoned him.

The conclusion of an alliance with some Cuman tribes did not at all mean the end of the raids of their brothers. Of course, the scale of these raids could not be compared with the attacks of the second half of the 11th century, but the Russian princes, more and more preoccupied with strife, could not organize a reliable unified defense of their steppe borders. In such a situation, the Torci and other small nomadic tribes settled along the Rosi River, who were dependent on Kyiv and bore the common name “black hoods” (i.e., hats), turned out to be indispensable. With their help, the warlike Polovtsians were defeated in 1159 and 1160, and in 1162, when the “mnozi Polovtsians” arrived at Yuryev and captured many Torki tents there, the Torki themselves, without waiting for the Russian squads, began to pursue the raiders and, having caught up , recaptured the prisoners and also captured more than 500 Polovtsians.

Constant strife practically negated the results of the victorious campaigns of Vladimir Monomakh. The power of the nomadic hordes weakened, but the Russian military force was also fragmented - this equalized both sides. However, the cessation of offensive actions against the Kipchaks allowed them to once again accumulate forces to attack Rus'. By the 70s. XII century in the Don steppe a major public education led by Khan Konchak.

Khan Konchak

The emboldened Polovtsians began to rob merchants on the steppe roads (paths) and along the Dnieper. The activity of the Cumans also increased on the borders. One of their army was defeated by the Novgorod-Seversk prince Oleg Svyatoslavich, but near Pereyaslavl they defeated the detachment of the governor Shvarn.

In 1166, the Kiev prince Rostislav sent a detachment of the governor Volodislav Lyakh to escort merchant caravans. Soon Rostislav mobilized the forces of ten princes to protect trade routes.

After the death of Rostislav, Mstislav Izyaslavich became the prince of Kyiv, and already under his leadership in 1168 a new large campaign was organized in the steppe. In early spring, 12 influential princes, including the Olgovichi (descendants of Prince Oleg Svyatoslavich), who had temporarily quarreled with their steppe relatives, responded to Mstislav’s call to “search for their fathers and grandfathers, their paths, and their honor.” The Polovtsians were warned by a defector slave nicknamed Koschey, and they fled, abandoning the “vezhi” with their families. Having learned about this, the Russian princes rushed in pursuit and captured the nomadic camps at the mouth of the Orelya River and along the Samara River, and the Polovtsians themselves, having caught up with the Black Forest, were pressed against it and killed, suffering almost no losses.

In 1169, two hordes of Polovtsy simultaneously on both banks of the Dnieper approached Korsun on the Ros River and Pesochen near Pereyaslavl, and each demanded the Kyiv prince to conclude a peace treaty. Without thinking twice, Prince Gleb Yuryevich rushed to Pereyaslavl, where his 12-year-old son then ruled. The Azov Polovtsians of Khan Togly, who were stationed near Korsun, as soon as they learned that Gleb had crossed to the left bank of the Dnieper, immediately rushed into a raid. Having bypassed the fortified line on the Rosi River, they ravaged the surroundings of the towns of Polonnoye, Semycha and Desyatinnoye in the upper reaches of the Sluch, where the population felt safe. The steppe inhabitants, who fell out of the blue, plundered the villages and drove the captives into the steppe.

Having made peace at Pesochen, Gleb, on the way to Korsun, learned that there was no one there anymore. There were few troops with him, and some of the soldiers had to be sent to intercept the treacherous nomads. Gleb sent his younger brother Mikhalko and governor Volodislav with one and a half thousand serving Berendey nomads and a hundred Pereyaslavl residents to recapture the captives.

Having found the trace of the Polovtsian raid, Mikhalko and Volodislav, showing amazing military leadership, in three successive battles not only recaptured the prisoners, but also defeated the enemy, who was at least ten times superior to them. Success was also ensured by the skillful actions of the Berendey reconnaissance, which famously destroyed the Polovtsian patrol. As a result, a horde of more than 15 thousand horsemen was defeated. One and a half thousand Polovtsians were captured

Two years later, Mikhalko and Volodislav, acting in similar conditions according to the same scheme, again defeated the Polovtsians and saved 400 captives from captivity, but these lessons were of no use to the Polovtsians: new ones appeared to replace the dead seekers of easy gain from the steppe. Rarely a year passed without a major raid noted in the chronicles.

In 1174, the young Novgorod-Seversk prince Igor Svyatoslavich distinguished himself for the first time. He managed to intercept the khans Konchak and Kobyak returning from the raid at the crossing of the Vorskla. Attacking from an ambush, he defeated their horde, capturing the prisoners.

In 1179, the Polovtsians, who were brought by Konchak, the “evil leader,” devastated the outskirts of Pereyaslavl. The chronicle noted that especially many children died during this raid. However, the enemy was able to escape with impunity. And the next year, by order of his relative, the new Kyiv prince Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich, Igor himself led the Polovtsians Konchak and Kobyak on a campaign against Polotsk. Even earlier, Svyatoslav used the Polovtsians in a short war with the Suzdal prince Vsevolod. With their help, he also hoped to knock out Rurik Rostislavich, his co-ruler and rival, from Kyiv, but suffered a severe defeat, and Igor and Konchak fled from the battlefield along the river in the same boat.

In 1184, the Cumans attacked Kyiv at an unusual time - at the end of winter. The Kyiv co-rulers sent their vassals in pursuit of them. Svyatoslav sent the Novgorod-Seversk prince Igor Svyatoslavich, and Rurik sent the Pereyaslavl prince Vladimir Glebovich. The Torks were led by their leaders - Kuntuvdy and Kuldur. The thaw confused the plans of the Polovtsians. The overflowing Khiria River cut off the nomads from the steppe. Here Igor overtook them, who the day before refused the help of the Kyiv princes so as not to share the spoils, and, as the elder, forced Vladimir to turn home. The Polovtsians were defeated, and many of them drowned while trying to cross the raging river.

In the summer of the same year, the Kyiv co-rulers organized a large campaign into the steppe, gathering ten princes under their banners, but no one from the Olgovichi joined them. Only Igor hunted somewhere on his own with his brother and nephew. The senior princes descended with the main army along the Dnieper in nasads (ships), and a detachment of squads of six young princes under the command of the Pereyaslavl prince Vladimir, reinforced by two thousand Berendeys, moved along the left bank. Kobyak, mistaking this vanguard for the entire Russian army, attacked it and found himself in a trap. On July 30, he was surrounded, captured and later executed in Kyiv for his numerous perjuries. The execution of a noble prisoner was unheard of. This strained relations between Rus' and the nomads. The khans swore revenge.

In February of the following year, 1185, Konchak approached the borders of Rus'. The seriousness of the khan’s intentions was evidenced by the presence in his army of a powerful throwing machine for assault big cities. Khan hoped to take advantage of the split among the Russian princes and entered into negotiations with the Chernigov prince Yaroslav, but at that time he was discovered by Pereyaslav intelligence. Quickly gathering their army, Svyatoslav and Rurik suddenly attacked Konchak’s camp and scattered his army, capturing the stone thrower that the Polovtsians had, but Konchak managed to escape.

Prince Igor with his retinue.

Svyatoslav was not satisfied with the results of the victory. The main goal was not achieved: Konchak survived and, in freedom, continued to hatch plans for revenge. The Grand Duke planned to go to the Don in the summer and therefore, as soon as the roads dried up, he went to gather troops in Korachev, and to the steppe - for cover or reconnaissance - he sent a detachment under the command of the governor Roman Nezdilovich, who was supposed to divert the attention of the Polovtsians and thereby help Svyatoslav will gain time. After the defeat of Kobyak, it was extremely important to consolidate last year's success. An opportunity arose for a long time, as under Monomakh, to secure the southern border, defeating the second, main group of Polovtsians (the first was headed by Kobyak), but these plans were disrupted by an impatient relative.

Igor, having learned about the spring campaign, expressed an ardent desire to take part in it, but was unable to do this due to severe mud. Last year, he, his brother, nephew and eldest son went out into the steppe at the same time as the Kyiv princes and, taking advantage of the fact that the Polovtsian forces were diverted to the Dnieper, captured some booty. Now he could not come to terms with the fact that the main events would take place without him, and, knowing about the raid of the Kyiv governor, he hoped to repeat last year’s experience. But it turned out differently.

The army of the Novgorod-Seversk princes, who intervened in matters of grand strategy, found themselves face to face with all the forces of the Steppe, where they understood the importance of the moment just as well as the Russians. It was prudently lured by the Polovtsians into a trap, surrounded and, after heroic resistance, on the third day of the battle almost completely destroyed. All the princes survived, but were captured, and the Polovtsians expected to receive a large ransom for them.

Bogatyrskaya outpost.

The Polovtsians were not slow to take advantage of their success. Khan Gza (Gzak) attacked the cities located along the banks of the Seim; he managed to break through the outer fortifications of Putivl. Konchak, wanting to avenge Kobyak, went west and besieged Pereyaslavl, which found itself in a very difficult situation. The city was saved by Kyiv aid. Konchak released the spoils, but, retreating, captured the town of Rimov. Khan Gza was defeated by Svyatoslav's son Oleg.

Polovtsian raids, mainly on Porosye (the region along the banks of the Ros River), alternated with Russian campaigns, but due to heavy snows and frosts winter hike 1187 failed. Only in March, governor Roman Nezdilovich with the “black hoods” made a successful raid beyond the Lower Dnieper and captured the “vezhi” at a time when the Polovtsians went on a raid on the Danube.

The decline of Polovtsian power

Back to top last decade XII century The war between the Polovtsians and the Russians began to subside. Only the Tor khan Kuntuvdy, offended by Svyatoslav, defected to the Polovtsians and was able to cause several small raids. In response to this, Rostislav Rurikovich, who ruled in Torchesk, twice made, albeit successful, but unauthorized campaigns against the Polovtsians, which violated the barely established and still fragile peace. It was the elderly Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich who had to correct the situation and “close the gates” again. Thanks to this, the Polovtsian revenge failed.

And after the death of the Kyiv prince Svyatoslav, which followed in 1194, the Polovtsians were drawn into a new series of Russian strife. They took part in the war for the Vladimir inheritance after the death of Andrei Bogolyubsky and robbed the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl; repeatedly attacked the Ryazan lands, although they were often beaten by the Ryazan prince Gleb and his sons. In 1199, the Vladimir-Suzdal prince Vsevolod Yuryevich the Big Nest took part in the war with the Polovtsians for the first and last time, going with an army to the upper reaches of the Don. However, his campaign was more like a demonstration of Vladimir’s strength to the obstinate residents of Ryazan.

At the beginning of the 13th century. The Volyn prince Roman Mstislavich, grandson of Izyaslav Mstislavich, distinguished himself in actions against the Polovtsians. In 1202, he overthrew his father-in-law Rurik Rostislavich and, as soon as he became the Grand Duke, organized a successful winter campaign in the steppe, freeing many Russian prisoners captured earlier during strife.

In April 1206, the Ryazan prince Roman “with his brethren” carried out a successful raid against the Polovtsians. He captured large herds and freed hundreds of captives. This was the last campaign of the Russian princes against the Polovtsians. In 1210, they again plundered the outskirts of Pereyaslavl, taking “a lot of stuff,” but also for the last time.

Old Russian fortress Slobodka from the times of the fight against the Polovtsians. Reconstruction by archaeologists.

The loudest event of that time on the southern border was the capture by the Polovtsians of the Pereyaslavl prince Vladimir Vsevolodovich, who had previously reigned in Moscow. Having learned that the Polovtsian army was approaching the city, Vladimir came out to meet him and was defeated in a stubborn and difficult battle, but still prevented the raid. The chronicles do not mention any military actions between the Russians and the Polovtsians, except for the continued participation of the latter in Russian strife.

The significance of Rus''s struggle with the Polovtsians

As a result of a century and a half of armed confrontation between Rus' and the Kipchaks, the Russian defense crushed the military resources of this nomadic people, who were in the middle of the 11th century. no less dangerous than the Huns, Avars or Hungarians. This made it impossible for the Cumans to invade the Balkans, Central Europe or the Byzantine Empire.

At the beginning of the 20th century. Ukrainian historian V.G. Lyaskoronsky wrote: “Russian campaigns in the steppe were carried out mainly due to the long-standing, through long experience of the realized need for active actions against the steppe inhabitants.” He also noted the differences in the campaigns of the Monomashichs and Olgovichs. If the princes of Kyiv and Pereyaslavl acted in the general Russian interests, then the campaigns of the Chernigov-Seversk princes were carried out only for the sake of profit and fleeting glory. The Olgovichs had their own special relationship with the Donetsk Polovtsians, and they even preferred to fight with them “in their own way,” so as not to fall under Kiev influence in any way.

Of great importance was the fact that small tribes and individual clans of nomads were recruited into Russian service. They received the common name “black hoods” and usually served Rus' faithfully, protecting its borders from their warlike relatives. According to some historians, their service was also reflected in some later epics, and the fighting techniques of these nomads enriched Russian military art.

The fight against the Polovtsians cost Rus' many victims. Vast areas of fertile forest-steppe outskirts were depopulated by constant raids. In some places, even in the cities, only the same service nomads remained - “hunters and Polovtsians.” According to the calculations of historian P.V. Golubovsky, from 1061 to 1210 the Kipchaks made 46 significant campaigns against Rus', of which 19 were to the Pereyaslav Principality, 12 to Porosye, 7 to the Seversk Land, 4 each to Kyiv and Ryazan. The number of small attacks cannot be counted. The Polovtsians seriously undermined Russian trade with Byzantium and the countries of the East. However, without creating a real state, they were unable to conquer Rus' and only plundered it.

The fight against these nomads, which lasted a century and a half, had a significant impact on the history of medieval Rus'. The famous modern historian V.V. Kargalov believes that many phenomena and periods of the Russian Middle Ages cannot be considered without taking into account the “Polovtsian factor.” The mass exodus of the population from the Dnieper region and all of Southern Rus' to the north largely predetermined the future division of the Old Russian people into Russians and Ukrainians.

The fight against nomads preserved the unity of the Kyiv state for a long time, “revitalizing” it under Monomakh. Even the progress of the isolation of Russian lands largely depended on how protected they were from the threat from the south.

The fate of the Polovtsians, who from the 13th century. began to lead a sedentary life and accept Christianity, similar to the fate of other nomads who invaded the Black Sea steppes. A new wave of conquerors - the Mongol-Tatars - swallowed them up. They tried to resist the common enemy together with the Russians, but were defeated. The surviving Cumans became part of the Mongol-Tatar hordes, and everyone who resisted was exterminated.

In the 10th century Polovtsians (Kimaks, Kipchaks, Cumans) wandered from the Irtysh to the Caspian Sea. With the beginning of the Seljuk movement, their hordes moved, following the Guz-Torks, to the west. In the 11th century in the Black Sea region, the Polovtsians consolidated the hordes of Bulgarians who had left the Volga, the Pechenegs and Torques into unions subject to them, and developed the lands that became the Polovtsian steppe - Dasht-i-Kipchak.

The Polovtsy who lived along the Dnieper are usually divided into two associations - the left bank and the right bank. Both of them consisted of scattered independent hordes that had their own nomadic territory. At the head of the horde was the ruling clan - the kuren. The family of the main khan (kosh) stood out in the clan. Their greatest influence and power were enjoyed by strong khans - military leaders, for example Bonyak or Sharukan. The Polovtsians raided their neighbors: Rus', Bulgaria, Byzantium. They took part in the civil strife of Russian princes.

The Polovtsian army had the traditional tactics of warfare for nomads - horse attacks with “lavas”, deliberate flight to lure the enemy into attack from an ambush, and in case of defeat they “scattered” across the steppe. Polovtsian troops successfully led fighting at night (1061, 1171, 1185, 1215). The Polovtsian army, as a rule, consisted of light and heavy cavalry.

Rus''s first acquaintance with the Polovtsians occurred in 1055 in the political field. The reason is the creation of the Pereyaslav principality in 1054 and an attempt to armedly expel the Torci from its territory. The Polovtsians, who were interested in settling the Torci, came to Rus' in peace and solved the problem of their resettlement through diplomatic means.

In 1061, the Polovtsians made their first invasion of Rus' and defeated Prince Vsevolod Yaroslavich of Pereyaslavl. The invasion was caused by a new offensive of Rus' against the Pereyaslav Torci, which violated the Russian-Polovtsian peace treaty.

As part of the Russian army, the armed formations of the Polovtsians took part both as allies (XI-XIII centuries) and as “federates” (XII-XIII centuries), that is, living on the territory of the principality and subject to the current laws of this principality. The Polovtsy, Torques and other “pacified” Turks settled on the territory of Rus' were called “black hoods”. The onslaught of the Polovtsians on Rus' intensified with the change of princely power. Rus' was forced to strengthen the southern border with fortresses in Porosye, Posemye and other regions. Russian-Polovtsian relations were also strengthened by dynastic marriages. Many Russian princes took as wives the daughters of Polovtsian khans. However, the threat of Polovtsian raids on Rus' was constant.

Rus' responded to the raids with campaigns in the Polovtsian steppe. The most effective campaigns of the Russian army were in 1103, 1107, 1111, 1128, 1152, 1170, 1184–1187, 1190, 1192, 1202. More than once the Polovtsians came to Rus' to support one of the disgruntled Russian princes. In alliance with the Russian army, in 1223, the Cumans were defeated by the Mongol-Tatars (Kalka). As an independent political force (Polovtsian steppe), the Polovtsians last attacked Rus': in the east - in 1219 (Ryazan Principality), and in the west - in 1228 and 1235. ( Principality of Galicia). After the Mongol-Tatar conquests of the 13th century. Some of the Polovtsians joined the Mongol-Tatar hordes, others settled in Rus', and others went to the Danube region, Hungary, Lithuania, Transcaucasia and the Middle East.

Campaign of the Russian army against the Polovtsians (1103)

In 1103, the Cumans once again violated the peace. Grand Duke Svyatopolk II Izyaslavich of Kiev (8.9.1050–16.4.1113) and Prince of Pereyaslav Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh (1053–19.5.1125) with their senior squads gathered in Dolobsk for a princely congress - to hold advice on a campaign against the Polovtsians. By the will of the senior princes in Rus', in order to solve a number of foreign policy and internal problems, the druzhina troops of individual lands united under the leadership of the Grand Duke of Rus' and formed an all-Russian druzhina army. At the Dolob Congress it was decided to go to the Polovtsian steppe. The troops of the Chernigov-Seversk land of Oleg (?–18.8.1115) and Davyd (?–1123) Svyatoslavich were invited to the campaign. Vladimir Monomakh left the congress and went to Pereyaslavl to gather his army. Svyatopolk II, taking a retinue army from Kyiv, followed him. In addition to the above-mentioned princes, in the campaign against the Polovtsians, they attracted the squadron troops of Prince Davyd Svyatoslavich of Novgorod-Seversky, as well as princes of the 8th generation: Davyd Vseslavich of Polotsk (?–1129), Vyacheslav Yaropolchich of Vladimir-Volynsky (?–13.4.1105), Yaropolk Vladimirovich of Smolensk (?–18.2.1133) and Mstislav Vsevolodich Gorodetsky (?–1114). Citing illness, only Prince Oleg Svyatoslavich did not go on the campaign. Thus, the all-Russian army in the campaign of 1103 was formed from seven princely troops from various regions of Rus'. And the Russian army went on a campaign. Having passed the boats below the rapids, the troops went ashore near the island of Khortitsa. Then, on horseback and on foot, we went across the field. Four days later they approached Suteni. The Polovtsians knew about the Russian campaign and gathered an army. They decided to kill the Russian princes and take possession of their cities. Only the oldest, Urusoba, was against fighting Russia.

Moving towards the Russian troops, the Polovtsians sent Khan Altunopa at the head of the vanguard. However, the Russian vanguard ambushed Altunopa’s detachment and, surrounding it, killed all the soldiers. Altunopa himself died in the battle. This allowed the Russian regiments to suddenly stand in the way of the Polovtsians on April 4 at Suteni. In the face of the Russian warriors, the Polovtsians “became confused, and fear attacked them, and they themselves became numb, and their horses had no speed in their legs.” As the chronicler writes, “the Russian army attacked the enemy with joy on horseback and on foot.” The Polovtsians could not withstand the onslaught and fled. In battle and pursuit, the Russians killed 20 Polotsk princes: Urusoba, Kochia, Yaroslanopa, Kitanopa, Kunama, Asup, Kurtyk, Chenegrepa, Surbar and others, and captured Beldyuz. After the victory, Beldyuz was brought to Svyatopolk. Svyatopolk did not take the ransom in gold, silver, horses and cattle, but handed the khan over to Vladimir for trial. For breaking the oath, Monomakh ordered the khan to be killed, and he was cut into pieces. Then the prince-brothers gathered, took Polovtsian cattle, sheep, horses, camels, vezhs with booty and servants, captured the Pechenegs and Torques with their vezhs, “and returned to Rus' with glory and great victory.”

Campaign of the Russian army against the Polovtsians (1111)

After the successful campaign of Rus' against the Polovtsians in 1103, the Polovtsians did not abandon raids on the Russian principalities and continued to torment the Russian lands with their devastating raids both in 1106 in the Kiev region near Zarechsk, and in 1107 near Pereyaslavl and Lubna (Polovtsian khans Bonyak, Sharukan in Posulye). In 1107, in the Pereyaslavl principality near Lubno, the troops of the Russian princes of Kyiv, Pereyaslavl, Chernigov, Smolensk and Novgorod principalities gave a worthy rebuff to the enemy on August 19, when at six o’clock in the afternoon they crossed the river. Sulu and attacked the Cumans. The sudden attack of the Russians terrified the Polovtsians and they “could not set up the banner for fear and ran: some clutching their horses, others on foot... chased them to Khorol. They killed Taz, Bonyakov's brother, captured Sugr and his brother, and Sharukan barely escaped. The Polovtsians abandoned their convoy, which was captured by Russian soldiers...” However, the raids continued.

In 1111, “Having thought, the princes of Russia went to Polovets,” i.e. The Russian princes again had a military council and decided to organize a new campaign against the Polovtsians. The united Russian army this time already consisted of 11 squadron troops of the Russian princes Svyatopolk II, Yaroslav, Vladimir, Svyatoslav, Yaropolk and Mstislav Vladimirovich, Davyd Svyatoslavich, Rostislav Davydovich, Davyd Igorevich, Vsevolod Olgovich, Yaroslav Svyatopolchich, i.e. moved to the Polovtsian steppe military power Kyiv, Pereyaslavl, Chernigov, Novgorod-Seversky, Novgorod, Smolensk, Vladimir-Volyn and Buzh Russian principalities. The commanders of the Russian army in this campaign were: Svyatopolk Izyaslavich (Grand Duke of Kiev); Vladimir Vsevoldovich (Prince of Pereyaslavl); Davyd Svyatoslavich (prince of Chernigov) with his son Rostislav Davydovich (appanage prince of Chernigov); Davyd Igorevich (Prince of Buzh, Ostrog, Chertory and Dorogobuzh); Vsevolod Olgovich (Vsevolod-Kirill Olgovich Prince of Chernigov); Svyatoslav Olgovich (appanage prince of Chernigov); Yaroslav Svyatopolchich (Yaroslav (Yaroslavets) - Ivan Svyatopolkovich, Prince of Vladimir-Volynsky); Mstislav Vladimirovich (Prince of Novgorod); Yaropolk Vladimirovich (Prince of Smolensk).

The united Russian army, as a rule, on the battlefield before the battle by the senior commander - the Grand Duke, was divided into three parts: a large regiment - the center, a regiment right hand and the regiment of the left hand - the flanks. The balance of forces in the campaign against the Polovtsians was as follows: the eldest among equals in Rus', Prince Svyatopolk II led the regiments large regiment, and Vladimir and Davyd, respectively, with the regiments of the right and left hands. In terms of subordination, the subordination of the princes' troops is as follows.

Svyatopolk's army consisted of three regiments, which were headed by: Svyatopolk Izyaslavich (Grand Duke of Kiev); Yaroslav Svyatopolchich; Davyd Igorevich.

Vladimir's army consisted of three regiments, which were headed by: Vladimir Vsevoldovich (Prince of Pereyaslavl); Mstislav Vladimirovich; Yaropolk Vladimirovich.

Davyd's army consisted of three regiments, which were headed by: Davyd Svyatoslavich (Prince of Chernigov) with his son Rostislav; Vsevolod Olgovich; Svyatoslav Olgovich.

In the second week of Lent, the Russian army set out on a campaign against the Polovtsians. In the fifth week of Lent it came to Don. On Tuesday, March 21, having donned protective weapons (armor) and dispatched the regiments, the troops went to the city of Sharuknya, whose residents hospitably greeted them. On the morning of the next day (March 22), the troops moved to the city of Sugrob, the inhabitants of which did not want to submit to their will, and the city was burned.

The Polovtsy gathered an army and, having dispatched their regiments, went out to battle. The battle took place on March 24 on the Degeya stream (“on the Salne Retse field” - in the Salsky steppes). And Rus' won. The chronicle testifies that after the victory on the Degea stream, on next week- On March 27, the Polovtsians with an army of “a thousand thousand” surrounded the Russian troops and began a fierce battle. The picture of the battle is drawn as follows. The large regiment of Svyatoslav II, consisting of several regiments, was the first to engage in battle with the Polovtsian army. And when there were already many killed on both sides, the Russian army appeared before the enemy in full glory - the combined regiments of Prince Vladimir and the regiments of Prince Davyd hit the Polovtsians on the flanks. It should be noted that Russian troops, in the fight against the Polovtsians, usually fight near rivers. This is due to the fact that the nomads used methods specific to them to fight the enemy. Being, by the type of weapons and way of life, light cavalry, their warriors tried to surround the enemy’s army in the steppe and, at full gallop, fired at the enemy in a circular manner from bows, finishing the job they started with sabers, pikes, and whips. By placing regiments near rivers, Russian commanders, using the natural river barrier, deprived the nomads of maneuver, and heavy defensive weapons and the possibility of flanking attacks on the enemy from left- and right-handed regiments already qualitatively changed the picture of the battle.

As a result of the campaign, the Russian soldiers “... and took all their wealth, and killed many with their hands... on Monday of Holy Week, and many of them were beaten.” The battle on the Salnitsa River ended with the complete defeat of the Polovtsian army, which crowned the half-century struggle of Rus' with the Polovtsians with a military triumph, and until 1128 the Polovtsians did not make major raids.

The lesson was truly harsh. The Donetsk Polovtsians, defeated by Vladimir Monomakh, became silent. There were no invasions on their part either the next year or the year after. But Khan Bonyak continued his raids, albeit without the same scope, and cautiously. In the late autumn of 1105, he suddenly appeared at the Zarubinsky Ford, not far from Pereyaslavl, plundered the Dnieper villages and villages and quickly retreated. The princes did not even have time to gather the chase. In the next 1106, the Polovtsians attacked Rus' three times already, but the raids were unsuccessful and did not bring any booty to the steppe inhabitants. First they approached the town of Zarechsk, but were driven away by the Kyiv squads. According to the chronicler, Russian soldiers drove the Polovtsians “to the Danube” and “took away everything.” Then Bonyak “fought” near Pereyaslavl and hastily retreated. Finally, according to the chronicler, “Bonyak and Sharukan the Old and many other princes came and stood near Lubn.” The Russian army moved towards them, but the Polovtsians, not accepting the fight, “ran, grabbing their horses.”

These raids did not pose a serious danger to Rus'; they were easily repelled by the princely squads, but the Polovtsian activity could not be underestimated. The Polovtsy began to recover from the recent defeat, and it was necessary to prepare a new big campaign in the steppe. Or, if Bonyak and Sharukan get ahead, we will meet them with dignity at the borders of Russian soil.

In August 1107, a large Polovtsian army besieged Luben, Sharukan brought with him the surviving Don Polovtsians, Khan Bonyak brought the Dnieper Polovtsians, and they were joined by the khans of other Polovtsian hordes. But since the summer, in the Pereyaslav fortress there were squads of many Russian princes who gathered at the call of Vladimir Monomakh. They rushed to the aid of the besieged city, crossed the Sulu River on the move and suddenly struck the Polovtsians. Those, without even displaying their battle banners, rushed in all directions: some did not have time to take their horses and fled to the steppe on foot, abandoning their full and looted booty. Monomakh ordered the cavalry to relentlessly pursue them so that there would be no one to attack Rus' again. Bonyak and Sharukan barely escaped. The pursuit continued to the Khorol River, through which Sharukan managed to cross, sacrificing the soldiers covering his escape. The spoils of the winners were many horses, which would serve the Russian soldiers well in future campaigns in the steppe.

The political significance of this victory was great. In January 1108, the khans of Aepa’s large horde, wandering not far from the borders of Kievan Rus, proposed concluding a treaty of peace and love. The treaty was accepted by the Russian princes. As a result, the unity of the khans disintegrated, and conditions were created for the final defeat of Sharukan and his allies. But preparing a new all-Russian campaign in the steppes required considerable time, and Sharukan could not be given a break. And in the winter of 1109, Vladimir Monomakh sent his governor Dmitry Ivorovich to the Donets with the Pereyaslav cavalry squad and foot soldiers on sleighs. He was ordered to find out exactly where the Polovtsian camps were located in winter, whether they were ready for summer campaigns against Rus', and whether Sharukan had many warriors and horses left. The Russian army had to devastate the Polovtsian vezhi, so that Sharukan would know: even in winter there would be no rest for him while he was at enmity with Russia.

Voivode Dmitry fulfilled the prince's instructions. Footmen in sleighs and warriors on horseback quickly passed through the steppes and in early January were already on the Donets. There they were met by the Polovtsian army. The governor put up a proven close formation of foot soldiers against the Polovtsian cavalry, against which the attack of the archers was broken, and the defeat was again completed by the flank attacks of the mounted warriors. The Polovtsians fled, abandoning their tents and property. Thousands of tents and many prisoners and livestock became the prey of Russian soldiers. No less valuable was the information brought by the governor from the Polovtsian steppes. It turned out that Sharukan was standing on the Don and gathering forces for a new campaign against Rus', exchanging messengers with Khan Bonyak, who was also preparing for war on the Dnieper.

In the spring of 1110, the united squads of princes Svyatopolk, Vladimir Monomakh and David advanced to the steppe border and stood near the city of Voinya. The Polovtsy went there from the steppe, but, unexpectedly meeting a Russian army ready for battle, they turned back and got lost in the steppes. The Polovtsian invasion did not take place.

The new campaign in the steppe was prepared for a long time and in detail. The Russian princes met again on Lake Dolobsky to discuss the plan for the campaign. The opinions of the governors were divided: some suggested waiting until next spring to move to the Donets in boats and on horses, others - repeating the winter sleigh ride of the governor Dmitry, so that the Polovtsians could not migrate south and fatten their horses, weakened during the winter lack of food, on spring pastures. The latter were supported by Vladimir Monomakh and his word turned out to be decisive. The start of the hike was scheduled for the very end of winter, when the frosts would subside, but there would still be an easy sleigh path.

At the end of February, armies from Kyiv, Smolensk, Chernigov, Novgorod-Seversky and other cities met in Pereyaslavl. The great Kiev prince Svyatopolk with his son Yaroslav, the sons of Vladimir Monomakh - Vyacheslav, Yaropolk, Yuri and Andrey, David Svyatoslavich of Chernigov with his sons Svyatoslav, Vsevolod, Rostislav, the sons of Prince Oleg - Vsevolod, Igor, Svyatoslav arrived. It has been a long time since so many Russian princes gathered for a joint war. Again, numerous armies of foot soldiers, who had proven themselves so well in previous campaigns against the Polovtsians, joined the princely equestrian squads.

On February 26, 1111, the army set out on a campaign. The princes stopped on the Alta River, waiting for the late squads. On March 3, the army reached the Suda River, having covered about one hundred and forty miles in five days. Considering that foot soldiers and large sleigh convoys with weapons and supplies were moving along with the mounted squads, such pace of the march should be considered very significant - thirty miles per day's march!

It was hard to walk. The thaw began, the snow was quickly melting, the horses had difficulty pulling the loaded sleigh. And yet the speed of the march almost did not decrease. Only a well-trained and resilient army was capable of such transitions.

On the Khorol River, Vladimir Monomakh ordered the sleigh train to be left and weapons and supplies to be loaded into packs. Then we walked lightly. The Wild Field began - the Polovtsian steppe, where there were no Russian settlements. The army covered the thirty-eight-mile journey from Khorol to the Psel River in one day's march. Ahead lay the Vorskla River, on which the Russian governors knew convenient fords - this was very important, since the deep spring rivers posed a serious obstacle. Horse guards rode far ahead of the main forces to prevent a surprise attack by the Polovtsians. On March 7, the Russian army reached the shores of Vorskla. On March 14, the army reached the Donets, repeating the winter campaign of the governor Dmitry. Beyond lay the “unknown land” - the Russian squads had never gone that far. The Polovtsian horse patrols flashed ahead - the horde of Khan Sharukan was somewhere close. The Russian soldiers put on their armor and assumed a battle formation: “brow”, regiments of the right and left hands, and a guard regiment. So they moved on, in battle formation, ready to meet the Polovtsian attack at any moment. The Donets remained behind, and Sharukan appeared - a steppe city consisting of hundreds of tents, tents, and low adobe houses. For the first time, the Polovtsian capital saw enemy banners under its walls. Sharukan was clearly not prepared for defense. The rampart around the city was low, easily surmountable - apparently, the Polovtsians considered themselves completely safe, hoping that they were reliably protected by the expanses of the Wild Field... Residents sent ambassadors with gifts and requests not to destroy the city, but to accept the ransom that the Russian princes would appoint.

Vladimir Monomakh ordered the Polovtsians to surrender all weapons, release prisoners, and return property looted in previous raids. Russian squads entered Sharukan. This happened on March 19, 1111.

The Russian army stood in Sharukan for only one night, and in the morning it moved on to the Don, to the next Polovtsian town - Sugrov. Its residents decided to defend themselves by taking to the earthen rampart with weapons. Russian regiments surrounded Sugrov on all sides and bombarded him with arrows and burning tarred tow. Fires started in the city. The distraught Polovtsians rushed through the burning streets, trying to cope with the fire. Then the attack began. Russian soldiers used heavy timber rams to break through the city gates and entered the city. Sugrov fell. The robber's nest, from which in previous years dashing bands of Polovtsian horsemen flew out for the next raid, ceased to exist.

There was only half a day's march left to the Don River... Meanwhile, the patrol patrols discovered a large concentration of Polovtsians on the Solnitsa River (Tor River), a tributary of the Don. A decisive battle was approaching, the result of which could only be victory or death: the Russian army had gone so far into the Wild Field that it was impossible to escape from the fast Polovtsian cavalry in the event of a retreat.

The day arrived on March 24, 1111. Dense crowds of Polovtsians appeared on the horizon, throwing forward the tentacles of light-horse patrols. The Russian army adopted a battle formation: in the “brow” - Grand Duke Svyatopolk with his Kyivians; on the right wing - Vladimir Monomakh and his sons with Pereyaslavl, Rostov, Suzdal, Belozerst, Smolyans; on the left wing are the Chernigov princes. The proven Russian battle formation with an indestructible phalanx of infantry in the center and fast cavalry squads on the flanks...

This is how Vladimir Monomakh fought in 1076 with knightly cavalry in the Czech Republic - pawn-spearmen in the center and cavalry on the flanks - and won. This is how he built his army in the last big campaign against the Polovtsians and also gained the upper hand. This is how, many years later, another glorious knight of the “Yaroslav family” - Alexander Nevsky - will arrange his regiments, when he leads his warriors onto the ice of Lake Peipus to push back the German dog knights...

Only at the end of the day the Polovtsians gathered for an attack and rushed into the Russian formation in huge crowds. The experienced Sharukan abandoned the usual Polovtsian tactics - striking the forehead with a horse wedge - and advanced along the entire front so that the horse squads of the princes could not help the footmen with flank attacks. The brutal slaughter began immediately both in the “forehead” and on the wings. Russian warriors had difficulty holding back the Polovtsian onslaught.

Probably, the khan was mistaken in building the battle this way. His warriors, many of whom did not have armor, were not accustomed to “direct combat”, to close hand-to-hand combat and suffered huge losses. The Russians held out and began to slowly move forward. It was getting dark quickly. The Polovtsians, realizing that they could not crush the Russian army with a frantic onslaught, turned their horses and galloped off into the steppe. This was a success for the Russian princes, but it was not yet a victory: many Polovtsian horsemen were saved and could continue the war. This is how Vladimir Monomakh assessed the situation, sending a guard regiment after the Polovtsians. Sharukan will gather his steppe army somewhere, we need to find out where...

The Russian regiments stood on the battlefield for only one day. Sentry patrols reported that the Polovtsians were again gathering in crowds near the mouth of Solnitsa. The Russian regiments set out on a campaign and marched all night. The fires of a huge Polovtsian camp were already flickering ahead.

The morning of March 27, 1111 arrived. Both troops again faced each other. This time Sharukan did not seek luck in the terrible “direct battle”, in which the Russians turned out to be invincible, but tried to surround the regiments of the princes from all sides in order to shoot the warriors from afar with bows, taking advantage of the speed of the Polovtsian horses and enormous numerical superiority. But Vladimir Monomakh did not allow his army to be encircled and he himself decisively moved forward. This was a surprise for the Polovtsian military leaders: usually the Russians waited to be attacked, and only after repelling the blow did they launch counterattacks. The Polovtsians were forced to take “direct battle” again. The leader of the Russian army imposed his will on the enemy. Once again the Polovtsian cavalry attacked the center of the Russian formation, and again the pawn-spearmen held out, giving the cavalry squads the opportunity to strike on the flanks. The Pereyaslav squad under the banner of Vladimir Monomakh fought in decisive sectors of the battle, instilling fear in the enemies. The horse squads of other princes broke into the Polovtsian ranks and tore the Polovtsian system to pieces. The khans and thousands rushed about in vain, trying to establish control of the battle. The Polovtsians huddled together in discordant crowds, moved randomly across the field, beaten by Russian warriors who were invulnerable in their armor. And the spirit of the Polovtsian army broke, it rolled back, towards the Don Ford. Frightened by this spectacle, thousands of fresh Polovtsians stopped on the other side of the Don. Horse squads relentlessly pursued the retreating Polovtsians, mercilessly cutting them down with long swords. Ten thousand warriors of Khan Sharukan found their deaths on the Don shore, and many were captured. The defeat was complete. There is no time for raids on Rus' now for the khan...

News of the victory of the Russian princes on the Don thundered across the Polovtsian steppes. Khan Bonyak was afraid, took his Dnieper Polovtsians away from the Russian borders, and in Rus' it was not even known where he was and what he was doing. The remnants of the Don Polovtsians migrated to the Caspian Sea, and some even further - beyond the “Iron Gates” (Derbent). Great silence fell on the steppe border of Rus', and this was the main result of the campaign. Rus' received a long-awaited respite.

Polovtsy (11-13th centuries) - a nomadic people of Turkic origin, who became one of the main serious political opponents of the princes Ancient Rus'.

At the beginning of the 11th century. The Polovtsians moved out from the Volga region, where they had lived before, towards the Black Sea steppes, displacing the Pecheneg and Torque tribes along the way. After crossing the Dnieper, they reached the lower reaches of the Danube, occupying vast territories of the Great Steppe - from the Danube to the Irtysh. During the same period, the steppes occupied by the Polovtsians began to be called the Polovtsian steppes (in Russian chronicles) and Dasht-i-Kypchak (in the chronicles of other peoples).

Name of the people

The people also have the names “Kipchaks” and “Cumans”. Each term has its own meaning and appeared under special conditions. Thus, the name “Polovtsy”, generally accepted on the territory of Ancient Rus', came from the word “polos”, which means “yellow”, and came into use due to the fact that the early representatives of this people had blond (“yellow”) hair.

The concept of “Kipchak” was first used after a serious internecine war in the 7th century. among the Turkic tribes, when the losing nobility began to call itself “Kipchak” (“ill-fated”). The Polovtsians were called “Cumans” in Byzantine and Western European chronicles.

History of the people

The Polovtsy were an independent people for several centuries, but by the middle of the 13th century. became part of the Golden Horde and assimilated the Tatar-Mongol conquerors, passing on to them part of their culture and their language. Later, on the basis of the Kypchan language (spoken by the Polovtsians), Tatar, Kazakh, Kumyk and many other languages ​​were formed.

The Polovtsians led a life typical of many nomadic peoples. Their main occupation remained cattle breeding. In addition, they were engaged in trade. A little later, the Polovtsians changed their nomadic lifestyle to a more sedentary one; certain parts of the tribe were assigned certain plots of land where people could run their own households.

The Polovtsians were pagans, professed Tangerianism (worship of Tengri Khan, the eternal sunshine of the sky), and worshiped animals (in particular, the wolf was, in the understanding of the Polovtsians, their totem ancestor). In the tribes there lived shamans who performed various rituals of worshiping nature and the earth.

Kievan Rus and the Cumans

The Polovtsians are very often mentioned in ancient Russian chronicles, and this is primarily due to their difficult relations with the Russians. Starting from 1061 and until 1210, the Cuman tribes constantly committed cruel acts, plundered villages and tried to seize local territories. In addition to many small raids, one can count about 46 major Cuman raids on Kievan Rus.

The first major battle between the Cumans and the Russians took place on February 2, 1061 near Pereyaslavl, when the Cuman tribe raided Russian territories, burned several fields and plundered the villages located there. The Polovtsians quite often managed to defeat the Russian army. So, in 1068 they defeated the Russian army of the Yaroslavichs, and in 1078, during the next battle with the Polovtsian tribes, Prince Izyaslav Yaroslavich died.

The troops of Svyatopolk, Vladimir Monomakh (who later led the all-Russian campaigns of Rus' against the Polovtsians) and Rostislav during the battle in 1093 also fell at the hands of these nomads. In 1094, the Polovtsians went so far as to force Vladimir Monomakh to leave Chernigov. However, the Russian princes constantly organized retaliatory campaigns against the Polovtsians, which sometimes ended quite successfully. In 1096, the Cumans suffered their first defeat in the fight against Kievan Rus. In 1103, they were again defeated by the Russian army under the leadership of Svyatopolk and Vladimir and were forced to leave the previously captured territories and go into service in the Caucasus to the local king.

The Polovtsians were finally defeated in 1111 by Vladimir Monomakh and a Russian army of thousands, which launched a crusade against their longtime opponents and invaders of Russian territories. To avoid final ruin, the Polovtsian tribes were forced to go back across the Danube and into Georgia (the tribe was divided). However, after the death of Vladimir Monomakh, the Polovtsians were able to return again and began to repeat their earlier raids, but very quickly went over to the side of the Russian princes fighting among themselves and began to take part in permanent battles on the territory of Rus', supporting one or another prince. Participated in raids on Kyiv.

Another major campaign of the Russian army against the Polovtsy, which was reported in the chronicles, took place in 1185. In the famous work “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” this event is called the massacre of the Polovtsy. Unfortunately, Igor's campaign was unsuccessful. He failed to defeat the Polovtsy, but this battle went down in the chronicles. Some time after this event, the raids began to fade away, the Cumans split up, some of them converted to Christianity and mixed with the local population.

The end of the Cuman tribe

The once strong tribe, which caused a lot of inconvenience to the Russian princes, ceased to exist as an independent and independent people around the middle of the 13th century. The campaigns of the Tatar-Mongol Khan Batu led to the fact that the Cumans actually became part of the Golden Horde and (although they did not lose their culture, but, on the contrary, passed it on) ceased to be independent.

Both khans were experienced commanders, daring and courageous warriors, behind them stood many years of raids, dozens of burned Russian cities and villages, thousands of people taken captive. The Russian princes paid both of them huge ransom money for peace. By that time, despite the turmoil among the princes, Monomakh managed to achieve the main thing: the Lyubech Congress marked the beginning of the unification of Russian military forces against the Polovtsians. In 1100, in the city of Vitichev, not far from Kyiv, the princes gathered for a new congress in order to finally end the civil strife and agree on a joint campaign against the Polovtsians.

Here Monomakh called on the princes to free themselves from this heavy tax, inflict a pre-emptive blow on the Polovtsians, and go on a campaign to the steppe.

Back in 1103, the Russian princes made a joint campaign against the Polovtsians. The Russian squads boldly rushed into battle, the Polovtsians could not withstand the onslaught and turned back. Their army was scattered, most of the khans died under Russian swords. Russian squads went along the Polovtsian “vezhs”, freeing prisoners, capturing rich booty, driving herds of horses and herds to themselves.

This was the first great victory of the Russians in the depths of the steppe. But they never reached the main camps of the Polovtsians. For three years the steppe fell silent and the Polovtsian raids stopped. Only in 1105 did the Polovtsians disturb the Russian lands. The next year the Polovtsians came again. And a year later, the united army of Bonyak and Sharukan again appeared in Rus', ravaging the Kyiv and Pereyaslavl lands. The united army of the Russian princes overthrew them on the Khorol River with an unexpected counter-blow. Bonyak's brother died, Sharukan was almost captured, and a huge Polovtsian convoy was captured. And the Polovtsians fell silent again. But now the Russian princes did not wait for new raids.

In 1111, Rus' organized a grandiose campaign against the Polovtsians, which reached the heart of the Polovtsian lands. With nearby friendly Polovtsians they consolidated peaceful relations. During these years, Monomakh and Oleg married their sons Yuri Vladimirovich (the future Yuri Dolgoruky) and Svyatoslav Olgovich to the daughters of the allied Polovtsian khans.

This trip started out unusual. When the army prepared to leave Pereyaslavl, the bishop and priests stepped forward and carried out a large cross while singing. It was erected not far from the city gates, and all the soldiers, including the princes, driving and passing by the cross received the blessing of the bishop. And then, at a distance of 11 miles, representatives of the clergy moved ahead of the Russian army. And later they walked in the army train, where all the church utensils were located, and inspired Russian soldiers to feats of arms.

Monomakh, who was the inspirer of this war, gave it the character of a crusade on the model of the crusades of Western knights.

Svyatopolk, Monomakh, Davyd Svyatoslavich and their sons went on a campaign. Squads and ordinary warriors came from all Russian lands. Riding with Monomakh were his four sons - Vyacheslav, Yaropolk, Yuri and nine-year-old Andrei.

The Polovtsians retreated deeper into their possessions. Soon the Russian army approached the city of Sharukan - there were hundreds of adobe houses and tents surrounded by a low earthen rampart. Neither Khan Sharukan nor his troops were in the city. The attack did not take place: a deputation of townspeople brought fish and bowls of wine to the Russian princes on huge silver platters. This meant surrendering the city to the mercy of the victors and the desire to give a ransom. Residents of another city, Sugrov, where the Russian army approached the next day, refused to surrender, and then the city was taken. No prisoners were taken in this battle: Monomakh wanted to knock out the horde of Khan Sugrov from the general Polovtsian military forces for a long time.

The next day, the Russian army went to the Don and finally met with a large Polovtsian army. Before the battle, the princes hugged each other, said goodbye to each other and said: “Death is here for us, let us stand firm.”

In a fierce battle, the Polovtsy, not ready to fight with a well-organized and numerous army, could not withstand the onslaught and retreated.

The enemy's onslaught was repulsed, but victory was still far away. More and more Polovtsian forces approached from all sides. A decisive battle was brewing, but this was precisely what the Russian princes were looking for. The idea of ​​the campaign was to deliberately go into the very center of the Polovtsian nomads, to sting the enemy in the heart, to approximately ruin his capital, protected only by the steppe expanses, to gather “the entire Polovtsian land”, to force the ever-eluding steppe inhabitants to fight fiercely and uncompromisingly and in a gigantic battle on destruction to grind their human resources, thereby convincing the enemy of their absolute superiority!

It was simply unreasonable to rush into action; one should have waited until as many enemies as possible had gathered. Therefore, having given God praise for the victory, the Russians the next morning celebrated the Annunciation at the site of the battle, which coincided that year with the Resurrection of Lazarus (“Lazarus Saturday”). Having spent Saturday at divine services, on the morning of Palm Sunday the Christ-loving army moved on. When did Monday come? holy week, their troops blackened across the entire steppe horizon, like a forest, closing in on all sides.

It is not known in what order the Russian army marched in such conditions - “in anticipation of an oncoming battle,” as we would say now. There is a temptation to imagine it as a deep, two-three-echelon formation. However, the description of the battle that began suggests that the deployment into the usual battle formation was preceded by the movement of three parallel columns in the pre-battle formation, when the “wings” went to the right and left of the road along which the “head” was moving. Before the start of the battle, the masses of Polovtsians had to inevitably push the side marching outposts to the outer columns, where they turned into barriers from rifle chains that rode into the column one at a time, but sources, naturally, do not report such details.

The main forces of the parties met three days later, on March 27, on the Solnitsa River, a tributary of the Don. According to the chronicler, the Polovtsians “came out like a great forest,” there were so many of them, and they surrounded the Russian army from all sides. But Monomakh did not, as usual, stand still, but led the army towards the enemy. They began to bypass the Russian regiments, but the princes did not allow them to complete the encirclement and attacked in the same order, with the right flank under the command of Monomakh entering the battle first. At this time, a thundercloud arose from the west and Monomakh turned his formation towards the enemy so that the beginning rainfall would be “from the rear of the regiments” and into the Polovtsians’ faces. Having encouraged the soldiers, Vladimir led them into battle.

The warriors came together in hand-to-hand combat, “and regiment collided with regiment, and like thunder, the crack of the colliding ranks was heard.”

The Polovtsian cavalry in this crush lost its maneuver, and the Russians began to prevail in hand-to-hand combat. At the height of the battle, a thunderstorm began, the wind increased, and heavy rain began to fall. The Russians rearranged their ranks in such a way that the wind and rain hit the Polovtsians in the face.

The Polovtsians fought courageously and pushed back the chela (center) of the Russian army, where the Kievans were fighting.

It was not possible to overthrow the enemy for a very long time, since reinforcements were constantly approaching the Polovtsians, and “the Russians began to weaken.” Signs of loss of spirit appeared - “there was great fear.” Trying to inspire the fighters, the princes constantly rode through the ranks. Encouraging their people in word and deed, they, as was the custom of that time, at the head of their bodyguards, wedged themselves into the enemy ranks and “cut the Polovtsians,” but the fatigue was very great. To turn the situation around, a truly titanic super-effort was required, and the Prince of Pereyaslav again took on this role.

Sources write: “Vladimir, seeing Svyatopolkov’s troops already in turmoil, fearing that they would become weaker, took his sons and some of his troops, rode into the middle of the Polovtsians in front of the Svyatopolkov’s regiments, crying out: “Who is the Great God, like our God?! Having first entrusted his regiments to Yaropolk, he himself began to brutally beat the opponents, so that when they saw the other Svyatopolkovs and his regiment, they all rushed after him...”

The appearance of Monomakh's banner in the center of the battle prevented panic. The Polovtsians could not withstand the simultaneous onslaught of all Russian forces and fled. From these descriptions the following picture emerges. When the Russian army, deployed for battle, reached the place where the Polovtsy were going to give it battle, they attacked with unusual determination for them, without a preliminary firefight. Heavy spearmen were immediately brought into action. Both sides were determined, and as a result of the frontal collision of huge dense avalanches (which, according to old cavalrymen, a rare occurrence in all centuries), armored riders, the crack of hundreds of simultaneously breaking spears was like a thunderbolt.

Finally, the Polovtsians could not stand the fierce battle and rushed to the Don ford. They were pursued and cut down, and no prisoners were taken here.

The extremely fierce battle went on for a long time without a noticeable advantage on either side. The ranks of the combatants converged and dispersed for more and more “suims,” but in vain. The heavy Polovtsian cavalry was hardly significantly inferior to the Russians in the quality of weapons, and the nomads compensated for the weakness of their horse composition, which had not yet regained strength after wintering on open pastures, with their gigantic numerical superiority. The scales wavered, and then Vladimir Vsevolodovich, seizing the moment when the Polovtsians retreated from the Russian formation for a while, led his regiments in a decisive attack, supported by the rest of the regiments.

This determined the success of the battle. The Polovtsians, as usual, having once been overthrown, now sought to disperse across the steppe, and the Russians, switching to pursuit, took many different trophies, as well as all kinds of cattle and horses. Prisoners were also captured, who told about the miracle they saw, which influenced the enemy’s resistance. They, according to them, fled because on top of the attacking Russians they saw terrible horsemen in shining armor helping them.

We can talk about the real defeat of such an enemy as the Polovtsians if their leaders were captured, who, having the best replacement horses, always had the maximum chance of escaping any pursuit in order to reassemble their scattered warriors. The Polovtsians, like other steppe peoples, always retreated, unless they won the first clash, in order to entice the enemy with pursuit, and, having upset his ranks, strike again or weaken him with a skirmish at gallop. Here, the frontal collision, as envisaged by the plan of the Russian commanders, was especially long and, probably, repeated due to the huge number of steppe inhabitants, but we do not find the names of the killed or captured Polovtsian “princes”. All of them safely retreated from the battlefield, which means that the Polovtsians were not defeated. Although for the first time they were defeated by all their forces and apparently suffered unprecedented losses. This allowed the Russian army to leave safely with the booty, demonstrating its invincibility to the numerous enemy.

About 10 thousand Polovtsy died on the battlefield. Only a small part, led by Sharukan, went to the steppe.

The defeat of the Polovtsian hordes undoubtedly had an unprecedented psychological aspect. In the long-term war with the Steppe, a turning point came that still needed to be consolidated.

The task of exorbitant, fantastic gravity and complexity was solved successfully, but only partially. The Cumans suffered major losses, but, of course, retained their enormous human resources. The Russians were physically unable to achieve more. A long pursuit could turn defeat into defeat, but scattering your forces across the steppe covered with crowds of enemies would be the height of recklessness. Most likely, the captured herds reported in the chronicle simply ended up in the rear of the Polovtsian center overturned by the Russians.

The Battle of Salnitsa is notable as the largest clash between Russians and nomads, probably even surpassing in scale the battle with the Pechenegs near Kiev in 1036.

The material is compiled based on open sources